Introduction to Cross-Border Aspects of VAT

It is established that Trade Law is a branch of law which regulates legal relations arising in the course of business activities, in particular, those related to the purchase and sale of goods and services, as well as other transactions related to the relevant processes. This branch of law contains legal rules that govern the establishment, registration, management and liquidation of enterprises, transactions, fair competition, consumer protection, intellectual property, patents and trademarks, and other aspects of business activities related to trading. The article proves that trade legal relations as the subject matter of the Trade Law branch are a complex set of property and non-property relations arising between trade law entities in relation to the sale and purchase of goods and services. These legal relations include all stages of the process of buying and selling goods and services: from finding partners and signing a contract to making payments and fulfilling the parties’ obligations. It is argued that the key features of trade legal relations are as follows: parties to trade legal relations are not only legal entities, but also individuals; one of the parties to legal relations is necessarily an entity which sells goods and services; the relevant relations arise not only by concluding a written agreement, they may also be oral; these legal relations are governed by the rules of not only Trade Law, but also other branches of law which are closely intertwined with each other; parties to trade relations usually have a single goal which is a commercial one; the quality and efficiency of trade relations affect the development of the state's economy as a whole, as well as the financial and economic condition of each individual; regulation of trade relations is an important guarantee of observance of the rights and freedoms of a person using services, works, etc.

Today, the scope of e-commerce is expanding. This raises the issue of equipping it with appropriate software that supports both the functioning of e-commerce enterprises and the application of modern methods and approaches to regulating the market for goods (commodity services). In particular, these methods include sales forecasting methods. An analysis of the current market for sales forecasting software in the e-commerce system reveals a shortage of suitable software solutions, which complicates the selection of the most effective software platform for generating relevant forecasts. The purpose of the article is to study and analyse modern software tools (systems, platforms) designed to perform e-commerce processes based on the results of sales forecasting for goods or commodity services using the appropriate Forecast software. The research methodology includes a systematic approach and comparative analysis of the main software solutions in this subject area (e-commerce system). The article explores approaches to developing and operating software solutions for forecasting the sales of goods and services, utilising statistical data and expert knowledge. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the analysis of modern methods and software solutions (systems, platforms) for forecasting sales of goods and services, as well as a comparative analysis of the latest sales forecasting platforms for both the Ukrainian and global markets. Additionally, recommendations are provided on selecting the right software solution for e-commerce enterprises. Conclusions. The study aims to enhance the efficiency of e-commerce enterprises by analysing software solutions that form the basis for developing effective software for forecasting sales of goods/services. The paper identifies the main problems of the existing e-commerce system software; analyses the main methods for determining the forecast values of sales of goods/services; analyses the existing software tools designed for forecasting (forecasting sales of goods or services); and provides recommendations on choosing the optimal software solutions that ensure the forecasting of sales of goods or services.

This article examines the stages of cost management in modern conditions, when many organizations are engaged in multidisciplinary activities, the role of accounting is increasing and its knowledge becomes necessary not only for accountants, but also for managers and managers. The main tasks of accounting for the costs of finished products and their sales are: - timely documentation and reflection in the accounting of all operations with products; - control over the implementation of the release plan, safety, movement and timely organization of products; - accounting of shipped goods and timeliness of payment by buyers for shipped products; - identification of excess stocks of finished products for the purpose of their sale, and more. The methodological basis of the research in the article is the sale of goods and services, more precisely, the sale of goods and services is the subject of attention of a wide range of market participants interested in the results of its functioning. To ensure the survival of an enterprise in modern conditions, it is necessary to realistically assess the financial condition of both your enterprise and existing potential competitors. Financial condition is the most important characteristic of an enterprise's economic activity. It determines the competitiveness, potential in business cooperation, assesses the extent to which the economic interests of the enterprise itself and its partners in financial and production terms are guaranteed. However, the ability to really assess the financial condition is not enough for the successful functioning of the enterprise and the achievement of its goal. В данной статье рассмотрены этапы управления затратами в современных условиях, когда многие организации занимаются многопрофильной деятельностью, повышается роль бухгалтерского учѐта и его знание становится необходимым не только бухгалтерам, но и менеджерам и руководителям. Основными задачами бухгалтерского учета расходов готовой продукции и ее реализации являются: - своевременное документирование и отражение в учете всех операции с продукцией; - контроль за выполнением плана выпуска, сохранностью, движением и своевременной организацией продукции; - учет отгруженных товаров и своевременность оплаты покупателями отгруженной продукции; - выявление сверхнормативных запасов готовой продукции с целью ее реализации и другое. Методологической основой исследования в статье являются, сбыт товаров и услуг, точнее реализация товаров и услуг является предметом внимания обширного круга участников рыночных отношений, заинтересованных в результатах его функционирования. Чтобы обеспечивать выживаемость предприятия в современных условиях, нужно реально оценивать финансовые состояния, как своего предприятия так и существующих потенциальных конкурентов. Финансовое состояние – важнейшая характеристика экономической деятельности предприятия. Она определяет конкурентоспособность, потенциал в деловом сотрудничестве, оценивает, в какой степени гарантированы экономические интересы самого предприятия и его партнёров в финансовом и производственном отношении. Однако одного умения реально оценивать финансовое состояние недостаточно для успешного функционирования предприятия и достижения им поставленной цели. Бұл мақалада көптеген ұйымдар көпсалалы қызметпен айналысатын қазіргі жағдайдағы шығындарды басқару кезеңдері қарастырылады, бухгалтерлік есептің рөлі артып, оның білімі бухгалтерлерге ғана емес, менеджерлер мен менеджерлерге де қажет болады. Дайын өнім мен оны өткізуге кеткен шығындарды есепке алудың негізгі міндеттері: - уақтылы құжаттау және өніммен жүргізілетін барлық операцияларды есепке алу кезінде көрсету; - шығару жоспарының орындалуын, қауіпсіздігін, қозғалысын және өнімді уақытында ұйымдастыруды бақылау; - жөнелтілген тауарлардың есебі және сатып алушылардың жөнелтілген өнім үшін төлемнің уақтылығы; - оларды сату мақсатында дайын өнімнің артық қорын анықтау және басқалары. Мақаладағы зерттеудің әдіснамалық негізі тауарлар мен қызметтерді сату болып табылады, дәлірек айтсақ, тауарлар мен қызметтерді сату оның қызмет ету нәтижелеріне қызығушылық танытқан нарық субъектілерінің кең ауқымының назары болып табылады. Кәсіпорынның қазіргі жағдайда өмір сүруін қамтамасыз ету үшін сіздің кәсіпорыныңыздың да, қазіргі әлеуетті бәсекелестердің де қаржылық жағдайын нақты бағалау қажет. Қаржылық жағдай - бұл кәсіпорынның экономикалық қызметінің маңызды сипаттамасы. Бұл іскерлік ынтымақтастықтағы бәсекеге қабілеттілікті, әлеуетті анықтайды, кәсіпорынның және оның серіктестерінің қаржылық және өндірістік шарттардағы экономикалық мүдделеріне қаншалықты кепілдік берілетіндігін бағалайды. Алайда, қаржылық жағдайды шынымен бағалау мүмкіндігі кәсіпорынның сәтті жұмыс істеуі және оның мақсатына жетуі үшін жеткіліксіз.

The problems of value added taxation within integration associations are currently important. Particularly, VAT is one of the major sources of EAEU states income, since that VAT regulation is an important step of elimination of cross-border trade barriers. Thus, the harmonization of EAEU states approaches towards VAT is the factor facilitating the union integration that will eventually result in more intensive economic growth. The article represents the comparative review of EAEU states approaches towards VAT with respect to different groups of operations (VAT-exempt operations, sale of goods, works and services), includes the comparison of tax rates, deadlines for payments and submission of reporting. The author conducts the analysis based on the national legislation, as well as EAEU agreement. As a result of analysis, it is admitted that although the common approaches with respect to the certain operations exist, EAEU approaches towards value added taxation of internal cross-border trade are generally not harmonized. Given that, the consistent question considering the necessity of selection and methodological elaboration of potential solutions arises. Among possible options there are unification of national legislation and implementation of “sales chain” principle as an alternative VAT principle applied in the international trade.

This study aims to analyze the implementation of revenue recognition based on the Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (PSAK) No. 23 in the trading company PT. Solusindo Ganda Kharisma. In an increasingly competitive business environment, companies are required to implement an effective accounting information system to produce accurate and timely financial information. Revenue is one of the key elements in financial statements, where its recognition and measurement affect the quality of the information presented. This research uses a descriptive qualitative approach. Primary data were obtained through interviews with relevant parties in the company, while secondary data were sourced from the company’s financial statements, internal accounting policies, and other documents. The results of the study indicate that PT. Solusindo Ganda Kharisma has effectively implemented PSAK Number 23 in the recognition of revenue from the sale of goods and services. Revenue from the sale of goods is recognized when the goods have been received by the customer, while service revenue is recognized based on the percentage of work completion. However, several challenges remain, such as delayed revenue recognition due to late delivery of goods and discrepancies in estimating the percentage of work completion for service sales.

International trade is the purchase and sale of goods by companies in different countries. Consumer goods, raw materials, food, agricultural products, pharmaceutical products, medical equipment, iron and steel, plastics, chemicals, clothes, energy, vehicles, electrical and electronic equipment, nuclear reactors, aircrafts, machinery, wind turbines, rare earth minerals, weapons, military materials, all are bought and sold in the international marketplace. Ethics has become a big issue in the last decades, due to globalization, where they try to harmonize hundreds of different cultures, customs, traditions, and values to a uniform one, but it is impossible and unachievable. International trade allows countries to expand their markets and access goods and services by importing them, otherwise it may not be available domestically; but there are many cases which cause serious problems with domestic production. As a result of international trade (exports and imports), the markets become more competitive, however ethical and fair trade is necessary for countries to maximize the wellbeing of their citizens, given their income constraints. International fair-trade policies and trade restrictions are the set of agreements, regulations, and practices by a government that affect trade with foreign countries, which is a combination of standards, laws, and practices that influence imports and exports. Trade policies can include regulations, devaluation of currencies, dumping, tariffs, and quotas, subsidies, with which they want to restrict trade and set policies that protect local industries from foreign competition. Fair and ethical trade policies must have a number of benefits, including economic growth, employment, attracting domestic firms that operate abroad to produce locally more efficiently at lower costs of production, and to lead countries to autarky, prosperity, and to maximize their social welfare. These ethical and fair-trade policies are effective if the price elasticities of demand for imports and supply of exports are high (elastic). The empirical results show that most of these elasticities are small (inelastic). JEL classification numbers: D6, F10, F13, F42, I38, J38, L40, C52. Keywords: Ethics and Economic Welfare, International Trade, Commercial policy: Protection, Promotion, Trade Negotiations, International Policy Coordination, Provision and Effects of Welfare Program, Labor: Public Policy, Antitrust Policy, Model Evaluation and Testing.

The rapidly spreading digital technologies have destroyed traditional ways of doing business, giving birth to a new business model - e-commerce, which has become a crucial feature of international trade. Currently, global e-commerce, as an innovative tool for cross-border purchase and sale of goods and services, provides almost unhindered access to international markets, facilitates business transactions, and responds quickly and easily to changes in consumer demand. E-commerce has become the backbone of China’s economy; it has changed the country’s economic landscape, reaching CHY 44 trillion, accounting for 27.6% of retail sales. The features of e-commerce enable residents of remote rural areas to purchase the same goods at the same price on the same platform as metropolis residents. China’s e-commerce has allowed millions of small and medium-sized enterprises to adapt to changes in market conditions and become exporters by joining the platforms of leading companies JD, Pinduoduo, Taobao, Tmall, etc. The experience of China is a useful lesson for most developing countries, which could also use e-commerce to guarantee their economic growth provided that they adopt the right policy and invest in digital infrastructure. The theoretical and practical signifi of studying Chinese experience in developing the ecommerce market, as well as insuffi research and incomplete comprehensive analysis of its functioning and immediate prospects in modern international economic relations, make the research topic relevant. The article analyzes the change in the volume of e-commerce transactions in China in the B2C and B2B sectors; traces the dynamics of cross-border ecommerce; identifi factors infl the rapid growth of the Chinese e-commerce market; defi the prospects for the development of Chinese e-commerce; basing on Chinese experience, highlights the factors that can stimulate the growth of the e-commerce market in the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation.

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter examines the significance of the terms implied into sale of goods contracts under the Sale of Goods Act 1979 and the statutory rights that are implied in a contract between trader and consumer by virtue of the Consumer Rights Act 2015. It explains the seller’s right to sell the goods, the goods being free from encumbrances and the buyer enjoying quiet possession of them, sales by sample, and the description and quality of the goods, as well as their fitness for purpose. Digital content is also discussed in relation to consumer transactions. The chapter also considers the terms implied into other kinds of contract by different statutes, including the terms implied by the Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982.

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter examines the significance of the terms implied into sale of goods contracts under the Sale of Goods Act 1979 and the statutory rights that are implied in a contract between trader and consumer by virtue of the Consumer Rights Act 2015. It explains the seller’s right to sell the goods, the goods being free from encumbrances and the buyer enjoying quiet possession of them, sales by sample, and the description and quality of the goods as well as their fitness for purpose. Digital content is also discussed in relation to consumer transactions. The chapter also considers the terms implied into other kinds of contract by different statutes, including the terms implied by the Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982.

Franchising is an important tool in the production, distribution and sale of services and goods. The present article aims at analyzing the main characteristics of franchise agreements, its classifications and practical repercussions. First, the different formats of franchise and arrangements by which it may be carried out will be presented in order to properly contextualize the analyzed subject. Next, the main new aspects of the legal framework which was applied to the franchise system for over two decades will be examined, with particular focus on choice of law, forum and arbitration. Once the most important foundations of the franchising system have been discussed, the case law concerning the use of arbitration as an alternative dispute resolution method will be addressed in the context of franchise agreements. Lastly, it will be possible to conclude that the new law ratifies the regularity of the use of arbitration in franchise-related subjects, removes unnecessary discussions before the judicial courts being, therefore, supportive to new deals.

It is proved that for effective state regulation of industry it is necessary to pursue a clear, high-quality and purposeful state industrial policy. To do this, we should use the full range of available mechanisms and tools. In the course of the research it was established that industrial policy means a set of measures of state regulation of economic processes at the sectoral and corporate levels, aimed at stimulating innovation activity, structural adjustment of the economy and economic growth. The necessity of pursuing the new industrial policy, which can be defined as a policy of maintaining competitiveness, is substantiated. It is determined that the process of state regulation of industry is a set of actions of the state as an institution used to influence the activities of economic entities (enterprises, corporations, entrepreneurs, etc.), as well as certain aspects of this activity related to acquisition of factors of production, organization of production, distribution and sale of goods and services in all phases of the life cycle of the business entity and the life cycle of its products. State regulation based on industrial policy has both positive and critical statements, the essence of which depends on the subject under discussion, namely, policy as a set of state measures and policy as a means to achieve political goals. It is proposed to allocate a list of new conditions for the implementation of effective state regulation of industry on the basis of state industrial policy, which form the conceptual basis of the new industrial policy. The main (basic) characteristics of state regulation of industry on the basis of traditional and new industrial policy are given, where the scenarios of traditional (vertical) policy and new (horizontal) policy are based. Based on the analysis of the practice of state regulation of industry in the European Union, priority areas of regulation have been identified, namely: increasing competitiveness through the development of new markets; strengthening of innovative activity, development of knowledge-intensive businesses; accelerating the process of restructuring companies and industries; improving the institutional and legislative environment; protection of intellectual and property rights; improving the quality and skills of the workforce.

Background. Humanity has entered the era of information value. An era in which information becomes a more important resource than other resources. Therefore, access to information, especially to conference information, especially to information that contains the main competitive advantages, is the primary task of competitive intelligence. Obtaining such information is most often associated with breaking the law and using special technical means. Complex data breaches can now be resolved at a faster pace, but tech intelligence professionals can use new ways to penetrate your system to steal valuable information and cause irreparable damage. Methods. The work examines the methods of detecting dangerous radio signals, which can be signals from radio jamming devices. An improved method of detecting radio signals is proposed, the improvement is based on the use of topological identification of threats. The method is based on the fact that the object of information activity must be divided into fractals, that is, areas of self similarity. Areas of self-similarity are determined by the physical properties of radio signals. In addition to the fractal dimension, in order to significantly increase the probability of detecting dangerous radio signals, introduce the appropriate fractal measures as the identification of radio signals. Fractal measures additionally allow you to determine the zones in which dangerous radio signals are detected. By setting the appropriate reference values of the relevant parameters of radio signals, it is possible to determine the fractal dimensions through the Hurst index and, depending on the obtained dimension value, it is possible to identify dangerous radio signals, signals of radio interceptor devices or other information capture devices that are installed at the facility with conference information. The use of the proposed method allows to increase the efficiency of detection of signals of radio interceptor devices and, in case of detection of such signals, to block the channel of information leakage. Results. According to research by analysts, 76% of international companies and government institutions have encountered industrial intelligence. With the help of technical means, 80-90% of the necessary information is extracted. In this regard, keeping commercially important information secret allows us to successfully compete in the market for production and sales of goods and services. The attacker uses technical means to gain access to commercial information. One of the types of technical means is a radio device. For the transmission of information, a transmission channel of the received information is created. Therefore, the issue of identifying and blocking information leakage channels is very important. Conclusions. It is proved that using the methods of fractal geometry, it is possible to divide the object of information activity into fractals, into areas of self-similarity. The criteria by which these areas are determined are determined by the physical principles of embedded devices. By setting the corresponding reference values of the corresponding parameters, it is possible to determine the fractal dimensions through the Hurst index.

"Technological transformations in the field of devices, software and communications" have led to the imposition of new forms of transactions related to the economy and information, the most prominent of which are "electronic transactions", which are "the implementation of everything related to the purchase and sale of goods, services and information via the Internet and other commercial networks", and through the electronic exchange of data, as well as "transcending time and space boundaries". Electronic banking is one of the things that resulted from the tremendous technical progress in the field of communications, as new methods of performance were created that are appropriate to the nature and requirements of digital transactions, and the customer can now benefit from banking services such as paying bills for goods and services via telephone and electronic communication. Electronic banking transactions have provided a number of advantages for customers, as well as providing "new marketing opportunities", widespread distribution, and "improving the quality of banking services". However, on the other hand, the emergence of these operations was accompanied by the exploitation of some parties, whether from outside the workers in those "financial institutions" or even from those working in them, exploiting the existence of some technical, administrative or regulatory loopholes or investors who enabled them in aspects related to information security,

Dynamic contracting plays a central role in many environments—for instance, in the sale of goods and services to consumers whose preferences evolve through learning, experimentation, or habit formation; in the taxation of workers whose productivity changes with learning-by-doing; in the provision of services on platforms with stochastic entry and exit of buyers and sellers; and in the matching of agents whose values and attractiveness are gradually revealed through past interactions. This article surveys several strands of the recent dynamic mechanism design literature, distills a few lessons, and points to promising directions for future research.

On eBay’s website, the eBay Marketplace is described as an online platform for the sale of goods and services through auctions and fixed-prices, offered by individuals and small businesses on a local, national, and international level (eBay, 2009a). Since its foundation in 1995, eBay consistently pursued an internationalization strategy to gain access to foreign markets and is now directly or indirectly active in 39 countries. In 2008, with more than 84 million active buyers and sellers worldwide and a total value of sold items of $59.3 billion with 46% from operations in the United States (hereafter U.S.) and 54% from international business operations, eBay was the largest international online auction market (eBay, 2009b).