Ion acceleration from intense laser-generated plasma: methods, diagnostics and possible applications

Thin foils of graphene oxide (GO) are irradiated by a fs titanium sapphire laser at an intensity of about 1019 W/cm2 in high vacuum. The produced plasma in the forward direction accelerates ions in a regime of target-normal-sheath-acceleration, thanks to the relativistic electron emission from the target surface and to their emission from the rear foil surface, generating a high electric field pulse with the positive target. The ion acceleration is measured mainly using SiC detectors in the time-of-flight configuration. Adding gold as nanoparticles or as a thin coverage film, the ion acceleration is enhanced as a result of a higher plasma electron density. The optimal acceleration is reached by varying the GO thickness, the Au nanoparticle concentration, the thin Au film thickness, and the irradiation conditions. Particularly important is the laser focal position with respect to the target surface, which is responsible for different acceleration values. In the used experimental conditions, a maximum proton energy of 2.6 MeV was obtained and the best modality to add Au atoms to the target is discussed.

SiC detectors based on a Schottky junction represent useful devices to characterize fast laser-generated plasmas. High-intensity fs lasers have been used to irradiate thin foils and to characterize the produced accelerated electrons and ions in the target normal sheath acceleration (TNSA) regime, detecting their emission in the forward direction and at different angles with respect to the normal to the target surface. The electrons' energies have been measured using relativistic relationships applied to their velocity measured by SiC detectors in the time-of-flight (TOF) approach. In view of their high energy resolution, high energy gap, low leakage current, and high response velocity, SiC detectors reveal UV and X-rays, electrons, and ions emitted from the generated laser plasma. The electron and ion emissions can be characterized by energy through the measure of the particle velocities with a limitation at electron relativistic energies since they proceed at a velocity near that of the speed of light and overlap the plasma photon detection. The crucial discrimination between electrons and protons, which are the fastest ions emitted from the plasma, can be well resolved using SiC diodes. Such detectors enable the monitoring of the high ion acceleration obtained using high laser contrast and the absence of ion acceleration using low laser contrast, as presented and discussed.

Ion acceleration resulting from the interaction of 11 fs laser pulses of 35 mJ energy with ultrahigh contrast (<10−10) and 1019 W cm−2 peak intensity with foil targets made of various materials and thicknesses at normal (0°) and 45° laser incidence is investigated. The maximum energy of the protons reached ∼1.4 MeV accelerated in the laser propagation direction and ∼1.2 MeV in the opposite direction from a formvar target. The energy conversion efficiency from the laser to the proton beam is estimated to be as high as ∼1.4% at 45° laser incidence using a 51 nm thick target. The high laser contrast indicates the predominance of vacuum heating via Brunel’s effect as an absorption mechanism involving a tiny pre-plasma at the target front. The experimental results are in reasonable agreement with theoretical estimates, where proton acceleration from the target front side in the backward direction is well explained by the Coulomb explosion of a charged cavity formed in a tiny pre-plasma, while forward proton acceleration is likely to be a two-step process: protons are first accelerated in the target front-side cavity and then further boosted in energy through the target back side via the target normal sheath acceleration (TNSA) mechanism.

As outlined in Sect. 2.1.1 only the most powerful lasers which are capable of producing ultra-short pulses are suitable for the acceleration of light ions. In this regime the efficient acceleration mechanisms are the Target Normal Sheath Acceleration (TSNA) and the Break-Out Afterburner (BOA), respectively, depending on the target thickness.

Proton emission from resonant laser absorption and self-focusing effects from hydrogenated structures

Target normal sheath acceleration (TNSA) by self-guided laser pulses is demonstrated at a range of Al target thickness (2-10 microns), and proton spectra are compared with those accelerated by un-guided laser pulses. For un-guided pulses, the maximum proton energy decreases with the decrease of target thickness, exhibiting the detrimental effect of laser pre-pulse on TNSA. On the other hand, the dependence of proton energy on target thickness was not observed when using self-guided laser pulses, which is possibly due to the suppressed pre-pulse intensity. However the laser pulse appears to lose a significant amount of energy (>~50%) during ~4mm self-guiding in the plasma, and thus the accelerated proton energy is much lower than the case of unguided pulses.

The impact of contaminants on laser-driven ion acceleration is investigated using particle-in-cell simulations. The conventional ion acceleration mechanism, target normal sheath acceleration, has been revisited for targets with proton-rich contaminants in the form of water vapor. The targets considered have a deuterated plastic layer on the rear surface of an aluminum target, and the influence of the contaminant layer on the deuteron acceleration is investigated. In the early stage of ion acceleration, the space-charge electrostatic field on the rear target surface accelerates only the outermost, proton-rich layer of ions, which inhibits the deuteron acceleration by shielding it from the field. When the proton layer is depleted, the deuterons become exposed to the space-charge field and are promptly accelerated. This scenario was tested with a two-dimensional particle-in-cell simulation model by varying the contaminant layer thickness and laser fluence (laser energy per unit area). For laser fluences Flaser&amp;lt;1 J/μm2, the contamination layer over the surface inhibits the deuteron acceleration from the rear surface, while in the opposite case of laser fluences Flaser&amp;gt;1 J/μm2 deuterons and heavier ions can be successfully accelerated with conversion efficiency of laser energy into ions of more than 1%. Experimental data from a 6 μm thick aluminum foil coated with a 1 μm deuterated plastic layer on the back surface are suggestive of the detrimental role of contaminants on deuteron acceleration.

We demonstrate how to tune the main ion acceleration mechanism in laser-plasma interactions to collisionless shock acceleration, thus achieving control over the final ion beam properties (e. g. maximum energy, divergence, number of accelerated ions). We investigate this technique with three-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations and illustrate a possible experimental realisation. The setup consists of an isolated solid density target, which is preheated by a first laser pulse to initiate target expansion, and a second one to trigger acceleration. The timing between the two laser pulses allows to access all ion acceleration regimes, ranging from target normal sheath acceleration, to hole boring and collisionless shock acceleration. We further demonstrate that the most energetic ions are produced by collisionless shock acceleration, if the target density is near-critical, ne ≈ 0.5 ncr. A scaling of the laser power shows that 100 MeV protons may be achieved in the PW range.

Target normal sheath acceleration (TNSA) is a method employed in laser–matter interaction experiments to accelerate light ions (usually protons). Laser setups with durations of a few 10 fs and relatively low intensity contrasts observe plateau regions in their ion energy spectra when shooting on thin foil targets with thicknesses of the order of 10 μm. In this paper, we identify a mechanism which explains this phenomenon using one-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations. Fast electrons generated from the laser interaction recirculate back and forth through the target, giving rise to time-oscillating charge and current densities at the target backside. Periodic decreases in the electron density lead to transient disruptions of the TNSA sheath field: peaks in the ion spectra form as a result, which are then spread in energy from a modified potential driven by further electron recirculation. The ratio between the laser pulse duration and the recirculation period (dependent on the target thickness, including the portion of the pre-plasma which is denser than the critical density) determines if a plateau forms in the energy spectra.

Laser-induced ion acceleration at ultra-high laser intensities

Measurements of ion acceleration in polymethylmethacrylate foils covered by a thin copper film irradiated by fs laser in target normal sheath acceleration regime are presented. The ion acceleration depends on the laser parameters, such as the pulse energy; depends on the irradiation conditions, such as the focal point position of the laser with respect to the target surface; and depends on the target properties, such as the metallic film thickness. The proton acceleration increases in the presence of the metallic film enhancing the plasma electron density, reaching about 1.6 MeV energy for a focal position on the target surface. The plasma diagnostics uses SiC detectors, absorber foils, Faraday cups, and gafchromic films. Employing p‐polarized laser light and a suitable oblique incidence, it is possible to increase the proton acceleration up to about 2.0 MeV thanks to the effects of laser absorption resonance due to plasma waves excitation.

Laser-driven particle acceleration has been under intense investigation for the last decade and is of particular interest for key applications such as medical physics, fast ignition and inertial confinement fusion. The dominant ion acceleration mechanism is known as target normal sheath acceleration (TNSA); although easy accessible it suffers from a low energy conversion efficiency. Recently reported maximum ion energies1 are in the range of a few tens of MeV, which is well below the energies needed for most applications. Recently proposed acceleration mechanisms utilize ultra-high contrast laser pulses and ultra-thin solid targets allowing for generation of ions in the GeV range from intense laser-plasma interaction. A high laser contrast suppresses pre-ionization of the solid target by any pre-pulses or laser pedestals and in theory enables acceleration beyond TNSA in regimes such as the break-out afterburner (BOA)2 or radiation pressure acceleration (RPA).

For many years, laser-driven ion acceleration, mainly proton acceleration, has been proposed and a number of proof-of-principle experiments have been carried out with lasers whose pulse duration was in the nanosecond range. In the 1990s, ion acceleration in a relativistic plasma was demonstrated with ultra-short pulse lasers based on the chirped pulse amplification technique which can provide not only picosecond or femtosecond laser pulse duration, but simultaneously ultra-high peak power of terawatt to petawatt levels. Starting from the year 2000, several groups demonstrated low transverse emittance, tens of MeV proton beams with a conversion efficiency of up to several percent. The laser-accelerated particle beams have a duration of the order of a few picoseconds at the source, an ultra-high peak current and a broad energy spectrum, which make them suitable for many, including several unique, applications. This paper reviews, firstly, the historical background including the early laser–matter interaction studies on energetic ion acceleration relevant to inertial confinement fusion. Secondly, we describe several implemented and proposed mechanisms of proton and/or ion acceleration driven by ultra-short high-intensity lasers. We pay special attention to relatively simple models of several acceleration regimes. The models connect the laser, plasma and proton/ion beam parameters, predicting important features, such as energy spectral shape, optimum conditions and scalings under these conditions for maximum ion energy, conversion efficiency, etc. The models also suggest possible ways to manipulate the proton/ion beams by tailoring the target and irradiation conditions. Thirdly, we review experimental results on proton/ion acceleration, starting with the description of driving lasers. We list experimental results and show general trends of parameter dependences and compare them with the theoretical predictions and simulations. The fourth topic includes a review of scientific, industrial and medical applications of laser-driven proton or ion sources, some of which have already been established, while the others are yet to be demonstrated. In most applications, the laser-driven ion sources are complementary to the conventional accelerators, exhibiting significantly different properties. Finally, we summarize the paper.

The discovery that ultra-intense laser pulses (I > 1018 W/cm2) can produce short pulse, high energy proton beams has renewed interest in the fundamental mechanisms that govern particle acceleration from laser-solid interactions. Experiments have shown that protons present as hydrocarbon contaminants on laser targets can be accelerated up to energies > 50 MeV. Different theoretical models that explain the observed results have been proposed. One model describes a front-surface acceleration mechanism based on the ponderomotive potential of the laser pulse. At high intensities (I > 1018 W/cm2), the quiver energy of an electron oscillating in the electric field of the laser pulse exceeds the electron rest mass, requiring the consideration of relativistic effects. The relativistically correct ponderomotive potential is given by Up = ([1 + Iλ2/1.3 x 1018]1/2 - 1) m{sub o}c2, where Iλ2 is the irradiance in W μm2/cm2 and moc2 is the electron rest mass. At laser irradiance of Iλ2 ~ 1020 W μm2/cm2, the ponderomotive potential can be of order several MeV. A few recent experiments--discussed in Chapter 3 of this thesis--consider this ponderomotive potential sufficiently strong to accelerate protons from the front surface of the target to energies up to tens of MeV. Another model, known as Target Normal Sheath Acceleration (TNSA), describes the mechanism as an electrostatic sheath on the back surface of the laser target. According to the TNSA model, relativistic hot electrons created at the laser-solid interaction penetrate the foil where a few escape to infinity. The remaining hot electrons are retained by the target potential and establish an electrostatic sheath on the back surface of the target. In this thesis we present several experiments that study the accelerated ions by affecting the contamination layer from which they originate. Radiative heating was employed as a method of removing contamination from palladium targets doped with deuterium. We present evidence that ions heavier than protons can be accelerated if hydrogenous contaminants that cover the laser target can be removed. We show that deuterons can be accelerated from the deuterated-palladium target, which has been radiatively heated to remove contaminants. Impinging a deuteron beam onto a tritiated-titanium catcher could lead to the development of a table-top source of short-pulse, 14-MeV fusion neutrons. We also show that by using an argon-ion sputter gun, contaminants from one side of the laser target can be selectively removed without affecting the other side. We show that irradiating a thin metallic foil with an ultra-intense laser pulse produces a proton beam with a yield of 1.5-2.5 1011 and temperature, kT = 1.5 MeV with a maximum proton energy > 9 MeV. Removing contaminants from the front surface of the laser target with an argon-ion sputter gun, had no observable effect on the proton beam. However, removing contaminants from the back surface of the laser target reduced the proton beam by two orders of magnitude to, at most, a yield of ~ 109 and a maximum proton energy < 4 MeV. Based on these observations, we conclude that the majority (> 99%) of high energy protons (E > 5 MeV) from the interaction of an ultra-intense laser pulse with a thin foil originate on the back surface of the foil--as predicted by the TNSA model. Our experimental results are in agreement with PIC simulations showing back surface protons reach energies up to 13 MeV, while front surface protons reach a maximum energy of 4 MeV. Well diagnosed and controllable proton beams will have many applications: neutron radiography, material damage studies, production of medical isotopes, and as a high-resolution radiography tool for diagnosing opaque materials and plasmas. Well collimated and focusable ion beams may also prove beneficial for alternative inertial-fusion concepts such as proton fast ignition, a potentially viable method for achieving a controlled fusion reaction in the laboratory earlier than expected.

The first laser ion acceleration experiments have begun with a method based on the TNSA (target normal sheath acceleration) that did not have an adiabatic process of the accelerating structure created by laser. A great deal of efforts have been dedicated to ever increase the adiabatic process of the accelerating structure with the ions since then. This acquiring of adiabaticity may be done by reducing the group velocity of the laser significantly to match that of ions, or to increase the ion velocity as fast as possible in order to match the fast accelerating structure created by laser. The methods of RPA (radiation pressure acceleration) and CAIL (coherent acceleration of ions by laser) belong to the latter. Finally, the recent entry of the single-cycle laser pulse acceleration (SCPA) marks another notch in the progress to make ion acceleration condition even more accessible and the acceleration results far more attractive by eradicating the oscillatory interference effects.