Kierkegaard’s Passion for Equality

Reviewed by: Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Division of Labour, the Politics of the Imagination and the Concept of Federal Government by Michael Sonenscher Flora Champy Michael Sonenscher, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Division of Labour, the Politics of the Imagination and the Concept of Federal Government (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2020). Pp. 203. $116.00 cloth. "How Rousseau invented advertising, imagined bitcoin and redefined the politics of public opinion" (vii): while this arresting "overexcited" summary falls short of giving a complete picture of Michael Sonenscher's latest book, it is a faithful expression of what is at stake in this short, ambitious, and thought-provoking piece of scholarship. Contrary to the common image of the stern citizen of Geneva, the "Brutus of our time" as described by Diderot, Sonenscher convincingly demonstrates that some of today's most pressing social and political issues, such as the key role of public opinion in political debates, the share of industry in the economy, the regulation of currencies, or the citizenry's faith in institutions, were already forcefully articulated by Rousseau. Sonenscher's account is rooted first in highly attentive readings, which called his attention to what he calls four so-far undercommented "details" in Rousseau's thought (xi): the power of imagination, especially its capacity to bridge the general and the particular, i.e. the intellect and the affect; the innate sense of self-preservation, [End Page 492] or amour de soi, rooted in a natural love of order possibly extending to a sense of justice; the "natural quality" of the feeling of shame, in particular in women, and how it can be reconciled with Rousseau's account of the human state of nature as a situation of complete independence; and finally, the implications of human perfectibility regarding the relationship between agriculture and industry. These "details" are in fact massive moral and anthropological questions, which have in part already been studied separately, but rarely in connection to one another. Sonenscher's account is thus genuinely new in a double sense—no small feat when writing on such an abundantly discussed author. Firstly, he is able to deliver a fresh view of each of these themes, by often taking the later, more elaborate, lesser-known works as a starting point. For instance, the examination of amour de soi as "a compound feeling bound up with both the body and the mind" (130), drawing extensively on the Letter to Christophe de Beaumont, differs in focus from Frederick Neuhouser's famous account of amour-propre, mostly based on the second Discourse.1 Yet, Sonenscher's greatest originality appears when he brings all four "details" together to give a comprehensive account of Rousseau as a political writer. For that purpose, he relies on Ernst Cassirer's 1932 analysis of the "problem of Jean-Jacques Rousseau," which pointed to a discrepancy between the two sides of his philosophy, the "story about pride, property, inequality, despotism and revolution" and the "story about political society, elected government, the rule of law and the sovereignty of the general will" (13). However, Sonenscher argues that Cassirer erred in proposing to solve the problem with the neo-Kantian solution of a "theodicy" (14), because that misses a key issue: how to "maintain the viability of the rule of law" in the "generalized mistrust" brought by "conditions of radical economic and social division" (53). In his own response, Sonenscher considers Rousseau less as a philosopher of morality than as a philosopher of the symbolic. Thorough close readings of non-political works such as Émile, Julie, or the Essay on the Origin of Languages enable him to assert that for Rousseau, "Human life was made up of signs, not things" (135). This entails a reassessment of the relationship between government and the creation of value, in all senses. While the book deals with human morality as politically induced, it focuses especially on how the specific conditions of modernity, when human communities are decisively shaped by economic mechanisms, impact this process. A revealing passage from book IX of the Confessions, stating that "everything radically depends on politics," is recurrently referred to in the book (20, 50, 54, 173). As Sonenscher points out, when put back in the larger...

Ecumenical Chronicle

Thriving with Stone Age Minds: Evolutionary Psychology, Christian Faith, and the Quest for Human Flourishing

The purpose of this study is to describe the spirituality of children aged 8-12 years in Aek Raja Village after the earthquake in 2022. The research method used is qualitative research. The informant determination technique is purposive sampling based on certain criteria that are in accordance with the research topic. The data collection technique for this study is using semi-structured interviews and documentation in the form of images. Based on the results of the research that has been conducted by the author, children in Aek Raja Village are increasingly active in participating in church activities after the natural disaster that occurred several years ago. Then they are more diligent in communicating with God through prayer. In the Christian faith, praying is not a spiritual activity that is done when someone has time to do it. Praying is also not done when someone has important needs or Likewise, children in Aek Raja Village have communicated with God the Creator through prayer. Children also believe in God. Likewise, children in Aek Raja Village, that they should be children of God always believe in God through the faith they have. Then children have love for others. Love for God is manifested through total obedience to His commandments and living according to His will written in the Word. This love for God becomes a solid foundation for love for others and love for oneself. Love is the essence of God, the nature of God, and the attributes of God. God has given His love to humans, therefore, humans are also expected to give love to Him and love one another. This is because only through mutual love between humans, love for God can be reflected well in human life. Likewise, the children in the village of Aek Raja that children already love others, especially their parents.

The article tackles two myths: the modern myth that God has vanished from human life, and the religious myth that the apostles, patriarchs, mystics and martyrs were in a more privileged position vis‐´‐vis God than we are. Dalferth argues that God has never been more present than today, has never been less hidden than today, and develops the thessis that the importance of God being present is central to the Christian understanding of God. Christian faith is faith in a present reality, not a set of beliefs about past events. The implications of this for the task of Christian communication are clear: the prime interest of Christian communication is to help those to whom it is addressed to develop a sense of the presence of God.

“Time Meant Nothing”: A New Reading of Pietro di Donato's <i>Three Circles of Light</i> beyond Autobiography and Stereotypes

The Question of God: C.S. Lewis and Sigmund Freud Debate God, Love, Sex, and the Meaning of Life

In order to explain the finitude of life within the horizon of Christian religious experience, theology has developed a treatise called eschatology. This article aims to contribute to the eschatological reflection on death from a Christian perspective, with the help of the thought of Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI. It is divided into three sections: 1- The problem of death in contemporary society: between denial and naturalization; 2- Indications of the view of death in Sacred Scripture; 3- The Christian meaning of death. Currently, according to Ratzinger, the idea remains among all sections of society, from believers to non-believers, that “death must come suddenly, without giving us time to think or suffer”, because naturalization has not had its intended effect: the end of fear in the face of the finitude of life. As a result, the idea emerged that this phenomenon of dying, not yet assumed and experienced as a necessary and uncontrollable fact, should be controlled with the help of scientific techniques, through methods such as euthanasia or assisted suicide. Thus, for modern Western man, death has become synonymous with failure, impotence and shame. They try to overcome it at any cost and, when this is not achieved, it is hidden and denied. Therefore, this article relays the essence of the Christian faith, the idea that human life is greater and more comprehensive than its biology, and that, after death, a new life is contemplated, one that is more perfect because it is eternal and imperishable.

Journal Article Religion and Politics in Germany since 1945: The Evangelical and Catholic Churches Get access Sabrina P. Ramet Sabrina P. Ramet professor of international studies University of Washington Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Journal of Church and State, Volume 42, Issue 1, Winter 2000, Pages 115–145, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcs/42.1.115 Published: 01 January 2000

Mormonism sprang to life in the age of American optimism. The gloominess of Calvinist orthodoxy had given way to theologies of human possibility that were expressive of a culture exuberant over its newly found freedom, both political and religious. Though idiosyncratic in their theology of the human being, Mormons balk at the suggestion that their religion is anything other than fully Christian. They steadfastly affirm the essentials of Christian faith though they have augmented traditional teachings in ways that place them in the borderlands of Christianity. Though Joseph Smith rejected the Calvinist implications of Edwards' theology, his early writings utilize language not far removed from that of evangelical preaching. Both Smith and Swedenborg conceived of the afterlife as places of activity and social interaction similar to that of human social life. Mormonism and Swedenborgianism are prime examples of the modern view of heaven in which God allowed the saints more control over their heavenly destinies.

BOOK REVIEWS 709 Is difficult to know which of these values justified such a treatment of Thomas Aquinas. Basic to Valente's "theological" position is a totally dialectical theory of reality and of human life. Modem man is fundamentally changed; he has a radically altered psychic world view. (p. 90) "Evolution" is Valente's key-word; he neither tells us what it is nor seems aware that the general sort of theory he is espousing is at least as old as the Greek Sophists and has always represented an altemative to other philosophical views of man and nature. What is the use of Valente's book? The fact that it is relatively inexpensive and that its positions are bluntly stated, even if not well organized, might make it useful as a foil for serious study of the morality of sexual conduct. In particular, the relationship between theological dissent on the issue of contraception and a radical revision both of traditional moral teaching and of ecclesiology appears more clearly in this work than in more technically competent theological studies. On the other hand, Valente is professor of theology and former Chairman of the Department of Theology at Seton Hall University. One can only feel sorry for unsophisticated young people, including his own students, who will be persuaded by this book that they can embrace both Christian faith and a completely secularized sexual ethics. Perhaps someone like Valente himself, brought up with a sense of faith and guilt, can maintain for a time this unstable synthesis of incompatible elements. The next generation surely will choose, and then there will be no further call for " theology " such as this. Georgetown University Washington, D. C. GERMAIN GRISEZ Concordant Discord. The Interdependence of Faiths. By R. C. ZAEHNER. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. Pp. 464. $15.00. R. C. Zaehner is one of a coterie of older British scholars who have written prolifically over the years in comparative religions and have exerted remarkable influence on the place of religion in England today. Along with E. 0. James, Geoffrey Parrinder, and S. G. F. Brandon, Zaehner and his colleagues have brought the discipline of comparative religions into the forefront of religion study in England. In fact, the discipline of comparative religions may have a firmer position in England than anywhere else in the world today. For the past century the British have been orientated towards Asia and Africa and, consequently, have taken great interest in advancing the study of other religions. The discipline has taken root in the 710 BOOK REVIEWS British educational system with some ease, and this has resulted in a demand for materials and scholarly works on the religions of Asia and Africa. The British school of comparative religions, as represented by those mentioned above, differs markedly from Continental and American scholars in this field. In both America and on the Continent the phenomenology of religion and the history of religions, strictly speaking, have dominated the direction of those studying world religions. Religionswissenschajt, in its classical sense for this discipline, is an attempt to integrate the research of the phenomenology and history of religions, and this is the goal, with the exception of the British school, of most comparative religionists today. R. C. Zaehner and his colleagues are by and large less concerned with this methodology and, consequently, are working within this discipline much as their predecessors did. It means that the British school is primarily concerned with the " comparing " of religions as was the fashion with the great pioneers in this discipline some decades ago. A redeeming factor, however, is that several of the British scholars, for example, Geoffrey Parrinder and S. G. F. Brandon, are more astute than Zaehner in drawing upon anthropological data and pertinent historical studies respectively. In England the scholar in comparative religions has become frequently the apologist for religion and, moreover, because of his Christian heritage, the Christian apologist of religion in the latter half of this century. It has effected the type of research and scholarship done in England. This is especially true of R. C. Zaehner. The British school, with R. C. Zaehner in the lead, has taken on a polemical and solipsistic approach in dealing...

This essay extends my previous research on eschatology to cover the question of human uniqueness. Using the approach of ‘experiential realism’, I begin with a few findings of modern science that are relevant to the topic: big bang cosmology, entropy, regularity and contingency, and emergence theory. On this basis, I discuss human uniqueness at the physical, biological and consciousness levels. There is indeed continuity between humans and other living beings, yet humans are far ahead of other creatures on an exponentially accelerating trajectory. Part of human consciousness is the capacity to envision the future. It can confine itself to what is possible and probable, or overshoot these limitations. I discuss three ways human beings experience time: physical, experiential and existential. The latter projects a vision of what ought to become as a response to the experience of what ought not to have become. A vision of what ought to become implies criteria and an ultimate authority setting such criteria. Against this background, I analyse the evolution of biblical future expectations. Apocalyptic eschatology and resurrection of the dead are the most radical among many other, and more mundane future expectations. They emerged late in post-exilic Judaism, were never generally accepted and began to lose their plausibility and relevance in New Testament times already. While projections that overshoot the given are immensely important for human life in general and the Christian faith in particular, apocalyptic eschatology envisages the replacement of the existing world with a perfect world, rather than its transformation. This can lead to pious fatalism and despondency and thus become counterproductive. The theological defence of apocalyptic eschatology rests on various untested assumptions. I briefly discuss and critique the concepts of divine agency, omnipotence, eternity and contingency. Finally, I propose a reconceptualisation of Christian future expectations as human participation in God’s vision of comprehensive optimal well-being, which translates into God’s concern for any deficiency in well-being in any aspect of life and which operates like a horizon that moves on as we approach it, opening up ever new vistas, challenges and opportunities.

This paper inquires into the situation of small children during the Hellenistic-Roman era, including NT texts and later Christian writings in the first two or three centuries. There was an early form of ‘Christian education’, and probably, children of baptized parents belonged to the Christian communities. In 1 Cor 7.14, Paul indirectly argues in favour of a ‘Christian influence’ on the ‘holy children’ by the ‘believing’ father or mother. In Eph 6.4, the author, speaking about παιδϵία καὶ νουθϵσία κυρίου, argues that in a Christian household children should have instruction in the Christian faith. The question of the baptism of small children might be answered by the interpretation of 1 Cor 1.14–16, where Paul precisely distinguishes between baptism of individuals (1.14) and baptism of the ‘house of Stephanas’. Mark 10.13–16 is a mirror of a discussion between those who ‘rebuke’ people for bringing children to Jesus, and Jesus himself who interprets their action as a ‘prevention’, thus escalating the conflict to a fundamental one, which probably refers to the question of baptism of children. During the last century, we have learned (again?) to see childhood not only as a transitional period of human life but one to be protected by society. Possibly similar ideas existed during the times when our texts were written.

The emergence of the progressive Christian movement has sparked controversy and is considered a deviation from traditional Christian teachings. However, on the other hand, progressive Christianity is also seen as an effort to contextualize the Christian faith within the ever-evolving realities of the times. This research uses a qualitative method with a descriptive approach to illustrate the phenomenon of progressive Christianity. The aim of this study is to explore progressive Christianity and its development from the perspective of constructive-decolonial theology, thereby opening a more constructive paradigm in line with contemporary human life. Progressive Christianity is viewed as a "liminal space," or between old traditions and renewal in contemporary Christian theology. Constructive-decolonial theology are used as perspectives to understand progressive Christianity, where constructive theology encourages the Christian faith to exhibit dynamic openness. Progressive Christianity is a movement that has emerged in response to social, cultural, and theological changes. Openness and willingness to listen to and engage in constructive dialogue amidst differences are necessary, making liminality a space for ongoing theological creativity and transformation.

This chapter places Catholic teaching on questions of life and death against the background of a Catholic vision of salvation history, emphasizing that Catholics see no necessary opposition between Christian faith and progress in scientific understanding of the creation. The chapter then considers questions concerning abortion, contraception, and techniques for artificial reproduction. The second half of the chapter focuses on questions concerning death. Catholic teaching views human life in this world as finite, and thus sees death as intrinsic to the current human condition. After considering Catholic teaching on euthanasia, the chapter considers Catholic discussion of war, the death penalty, and care for the environment.