La discrimination des prix dans un cadre de concurrence spatiale

Discrimination des prix, différenciation des produits et échange international L'article se propose de combler quatre lacunes de la théorie traditionnelle de la différenciation internationale clés produits : l'entreprise ne produit qu'une seule variété, les déterminants de la spécialisation intra-produit ne sont spécifiés ni entre firmes ni entre nations, les phénomènes de discrimination sont ignorés. Pour cela, l'auteur présente une nouvelle approche en redéfinissant les coûts de production et les coûts de différenciation et en envisageant la différenciation des produits comme une forme particulière de discrimination des marchés elle-même influencée par la discrimination tarifaire. On établit les résultats suivants : des variétés peuvent être produites spécifiquement pour le marché étranger, les échanges intra-branche ne sont pas favorisés par des coûts de différenciation décroissants avec les quantités et ils n'exigent pas des demandes nationales proches ; la discri­mination des prix favorise la prolifération des variétés et les échanges intra-branche. Enfin, la spécialisation intra-branche pourrait dépendre des avantages comparés des nations dans l'incorporation des caractéristiques.

As big data capabilities have increased, so too has the potential for price discrimination. Price discrimination occurs when sellers offer goods and services at different prices to different consumers. Profiles of consumers can be created based on a variety of factors, such as their location, past purchases or behaviors online, or, more frequently, a large number offactors that, when combined, enables sellers to serve tailored prices based on differences between consumer profiles. In addition to these algorithmic forms of price discrimination, simpler methods are also in use, such as basing prices solely on the basis of a consumer’s IP address. This article aims to provide a comprehensive mapping of the boundaries of online price discrimination in Europe. While few legal provisions speak directly to online price discrimination or personalized pricing, a number of areas of law likely have a bearing on the extent to which price discrimination is legally permitted. As such, this article will examine competition law, consumer protection law, data protection law, and non-discrimination law in order to determine where online price discrimination may constitute noncompliance with one of the relevant provisions, as well as to denote where it appears that the framework is ill-equipped to adequately address the practice. Practical and sociological aspects relating to both online price discrimination and the application of the legal frameworks in these areas are also incorporated.

The aim of this research is to determine the influence of price, product and group differentiation on purchasing decisions with purchase interest as mediation. The sample size was 100 students taken using a non-probability sampling method. The sampling technique was in the form of purposive sampling, and data analysis uses SmartPLS. Validity and reliability testing use SPSS 25 software. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) testing and data analysis use SmartPLS 3.2.8. All instrument validity and reliability tests as well as CFA were declared valid and reliable. The model fit test showed good SRMR (0.10 or the same as the cut value), very good Chi-Square (523.675<552), good NFI (0.702), and Rms Theta not good (0.180 > 0.12). The research results prove that price and product differentiation have a positive and insignificant effect on purchasing interest. Reference groups have a positive and significant effect on purchasing interest. Price has a negative and insignificant effect on purchasing decisions. Product differentiation, reference groups, and purchasing interest have a positive and significant effect on purchasing decisions. The mediating role of buying interest has a positive and insignificant effect as a mediator between price and buying decisions. Likewise with product differentiation on purchasing decisions. Purchase interest has a positive and significant effect as a mediator between reference groups on purchasing decisions.

The aim of this research is to determine the influence of price, product and group differentiation on purchasing decisions with purchase interest as mediation. The sample size was 100 students taken using a non-probability sampling method. The sampling technique was in the form of purposive sampling, and data analysis uses SmartPLS. Validity and reliability testing use SPSS 25 software. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) testing and data analysis use SmartPLS 3.2.8. All instrument validity and reliability tests as well as CFA were declared valid and reliable. The model fit test showed good SRMR (0.10 or the same as the cut value), very good Chi-Square (523.675<552), good NFI (0.702), and Rms Theta not good (0.180 > 0.12). The research results prove that price and product differentiation have a positive and insignificant effect on purchasing interest. Reference groups have a positive and significant effect on purchasing interest. Price has a negative and insignificant effect on purchasing decisions. Product differentiation, reference groups, and purchasing interest have a positive and significant effect on purchasing decisions. The mediating role of buying interest has a positive and insignificant effect as a mediator between price and buying decisions. Likewise with product differentiation on purchasing decisions. Purchase interest has a positive and significant effect as a mediator between reference groups on purchasing decisions.

Introduction, 342. — I. Theoretical development, 343; constant cost, 344; decreasing cost, 345; increasing cost, 353. — II. Electric light and power industry, 355. — III. The railroads, 363. — IV. The telephone industry, 369. — V. Conclusion, 371.

The study focused on product positioning and exploitation of Nigerian solid mineral resources towards transforming third world countries. The specific objectives of the study were to examine the effect of product price, product quality and product differentiation on Nigerian solid mineral resources; Data were collected through a primary source. The population of the study was 218 which consisted of final year students of Marketing from University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. These respondents were used due to their background knowledge in Marketing. The study utilized simple random sampling technique to select sample of 80 respondents for the study. 5-point likert scale option of structured questionnaire was used in the study to obtain respondents’ response. Content validity was used to determine the validity of the instrument by giving to research experts who modified and made the necessary correction to measure the instrument. Simple linear regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis. Three hypotheses were tested in line with the objectives of the study and it was revealed that there was a significant relationship between product price, product quality and product differentiation, and Nigerian solid mineral resources. The study suggested some recommendations as follows: Government agencies and major stakeholders affiliated with solid mineral resources in Nigeria should imbibe product price strategy in order to encourage high patronage for Nigerian solid mineral resources. Product quality should be embraced because it attracts foreign buyers to patronise Nigerian solid mineral resources. Government agencies and major stakeholders in charge of solid minerals in Nigeria should embark on product differentiation among mineral resources in Nigeria to command high patronage from foreign buyers.

The debate in economics about whether third-degree price discrimination by a firm with monopoly power is socially beneficial or not has gone on a long time. In fact, the debate goes back to Pigou (1920) and Robinson (1933). Two main reasons why third-degree price discrimination affects welfare are the fact that different groups of buyers are charged different prices leads to a misallocation of output and the total output under price discrimination may differ from total output under uniform pricing. Schmalensee (1981), Varian (1985), and Schwartz (1990) show that welfare falls if total output is the same or lower under price discrimination than under uniform pricing. That is, in order for price discrimination to yield a higher welfare, a necessary but insufficient condition is that total output be higher under price discrimination. In this connection, Hausman and Mackie-Mason (1988) argue that price discrimination is most beneficial when there are economies of scale. On the other land, Layson (1994) shows that it is possible for economies of scale to decrease the welfare gains from price discrimination rather than increase them.

Author(s): Muehlegger, Erich; Rapson, David | Abstract: This research project explores the plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) market, including both Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), and the sociodemographic characteristics of purchasing households. The authors use detailed micro-level data on PEV purchase records to answer two primary research questions. Their results confirm that low-income households exhibit a lower share of PEV purchases than they do for conventional, internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Households with annual income less than $50,000 comprise 33 percent of ICE purchases and only 14 percent of PEVS. By comparison, high-income households earning more than $150,000 annually comprise only 12 percent of ICE purchases and 35 percent of PEV purchases over their sample period. Similarly, unsurprising patterns can be seen across ethnicities. For example, non-Hispanic Whites represent 41 percent of ICE purchases but 55 percent of PEV purchases, as compared to Hispanics (38 percent of ICE and 10 percent of PEVs) and African Americans (3 percent of ICEs and 2 percent of PEVS). These differences naturally raise questions about barriers to PEV adoption among low-income and minority ethnic populations. By comparing outcomes in the ICE, hybrid, and PEV markets across income and ethnic groups, the authors are able to test whether price discrimination and barriers to market access are higher in PEV markets for low-income and minority ethnic groups. The authors find that, overall, they are not, although there are mixed results for the used PEV market. In general, non-white, low-income populations face higher prices in the used PEV market, relative to a baseline, than they do in the new PEV market. While some people travel farther to buy used PEVs than they do to buy used ICE vehicles, there is not a pattern that would indicate systematic discrimination (e.g. Hispanics travel farther to buy used PHEVs but less far to buy used BEVs). While the authors admit that their empirical approach cannot control for all potential vehicle composition effects, the authors view their results as being most consistent with a market that provides access to all ethnicities and income groups.View the NCST Project Webpage

We propose a model of product technology that describes products as complex systems.Complex systems are made out of elements that function collectively according to the way theyare put together within a system's architecture. Different choices of elements translate intodifferent levels of functional attributes and price. New variations in product design occur throughmutations at the level of elements ('genotype') while pre-market trials and market selection occurat the level of costs and functions ('phenotype'). In this model, both vertical and horizontaldifferentiation can be represented. Vertical differentiation can be understood as stemming fromthe use of expensive elements in high-performance product designs. Horizontal differentiationcan occur when different, complementary combinations of elements yield mixes of functions eachof which is preferred by a different user group.Microcomputers provide us with an interesting example of an artefact that has evolved intodifferent varieties through a series of component innovation and recombination (Langlois andRobertson 1992). Databases on component characteristics of over 4000 different microcomputersfrom 1992 to 1997 are analysed on product and price differentiation using entropy statistics. Dataon price allow us to distinguish between variety reflecting vertical differentiation and varietyreflecting horizontal differentiation. This distinction is of importance when one wants tounderstand the diffusion of new component technologies through either product differentiation orprice differentiation. Other issues regarding modelling and measurement of complex systems arediscussed in the final section.

The aim of this study is to gain insights into the attitudes of the population towards big data practices and the factors influencing them. To this end, a nationwide survey (N = 1,331), representative of the population of Germany, addressed the attitudes about selected big data practices exemplified by four scenarios, which may have a direct impact on the personal lifestyle. The scenarios contained price discrimination in retail, credit scoring, differentiations in health insurance, and differentiations in employment. The attitudes about the scenarios were set into relation to demographic characteristics, personal value orientations, knowledge about computers and the internet, and general attitudes about privacy and data protection. Another focus of the study is on the institutional framework of privacy and data protection, because the realization of benefits or risks of big data practices for the population also depends on the knowledge about the rights the institutional framework provided to the population and the actual use of those rights. As results, several challenges for the framework by big data practices were confirmed, in particular for the elements of informed consent with privacy policies, purpose limitation, and the individuals’ rights to request information about the processing of personal data and to have these data corrected or erased.

There is a particular class of products where people must visit the point of production in order to be consumers, and these products are normally lifestyle, tourism or leisure services. Examples include environmentally-based leisure facilities, housing, and tourist accommodation. Frequently the assertion is made that location makes one product 'superior' to another, in terms of both its production and consumption. This study enquires into the asserted significance of location in product differentiation, with special reference to hospitality and tourism products. The study is particularly concerned with commercially tradeable products offered to a consumer market by a number of competitive firms, rather than being concerned with one-off markets for assets for exclusive use, such as houses. By the use of characteristics theory, this study shows that the role of geographic location within a product such as hotel accommodation is that of a product-differentiating characteristic, or set of characteristics. However, the location of such a product is an example of a fixed, or unalterable, characteristic, once a supplier has entered a market. With most product-differentiating characteristics, a supplier can attain an optimal business position by enhancing the differentiation for as long as customers' willingness to pay 'the extra' (marginal revenue) exceeds or equals the cost (marginal cost) of product enhancement. However, a supplier cannot easily do this for a fixed characteristic. So what is the value of a particular location to a supplier of this type of product? This study develops a model to identify the specific elements of a location that are important to consumers, and then to estimate their values. It is argued that the values of each specific element (locational characteristics) should contribute in a predictable way to the overall price of each product in the market place. It is also shown in this study that individual suppliers who cannot identify, or who incorrectly set, prices based on locational characteristics face a measurable variation in demand from the mean in the market place. The model and methodology are tested empirically in the market for international-standard hotel accommodation on the Gold Coast, Queensland. It is shown that this constitutes a single, coherent market as a tourist destination, where a limited number of producers compete with differentiated products. Those product characteristics that are important to the market are identified, and it is shown that elements of location and other characteristics can be valued accurately across the market. The relationship between suppliers' 'overpricing' or 'underpricing' of their product characteristics and variations in demand from the market average is explored. This study therefore has implications for pricing strategy, as well as for land valuation and planning. The study can be seen as contributing primarily to the economics literature, in the area of industrial economics, but also to the marketing, and hospitality and tourism literature.

On fair price discrimination in multi-unit markets

Yves Mertens, Victor Ginsburgh, Product Differentiation and Price Discrimination in the European Community: The Case of Automobiles, The Journal of Industrial Economics, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Dec., 1985), pp. 151-166

The world dairy industry is one of the most heavily protected in the agri-food sector. Exports of dairy products are dominated by the EU, the United States, New Zealand, and Australia. The major importers of dairy products are far less concentrated but include the EU, Japan, Mexico, Russia, the United States, and many others. The Canadian dairy industry came out of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations with the continued ability to practise supply management, thereby allowing it to: (1) maintain prices above world market levels and (2) control the allocation of output to the domestic market. In fact, the Agreement on Agriculture opened the door for Canada to become a more aggressive exporter of dairy products by practising price discrimination between domestic and export markets. The Canadian dairy export program introduced in 1995 was challenged by the United States and New Zealand, and the WTO appellate body ruled against Canada because of the involvement of government agencies in the export process. Recent changes in Canada's dairy export program remove the direct involvement of government agencies but Canada may face a new WTO challenge, one that would force the WTO to rule if price discrimination, at least in some situations, is an export subsidy. Progress towards future trade liberalization in the dairy sector will involve reductions in export subsidies and over-quota tariffs, and increases in minimum access commitments. Reductions in explicit export subsidies will have the most effect on the EU. The effects of tariff reductions and increases in minimum access on domestic product prices, production, and consumption are commodity and country specific. Careful analysis of any proposed changes in these instruments will be required to fully understand their effects, both in Canada and on world markets.

This study aims to determine “The Influence of Price and Product Differentiation Against Buying Decision Suzuki Satria Fu Motor Cycle at Suzuki Sunindo Amplas Medan Branches”. This type of research is associative is a research that is asking the relationship between two variables. And by using the technique of slovin formula, then the number of samples in this study as many as 111 the price variable has a positive and significant effect on buying decision variable has a positive and significant effect on buying decisionhence trust variable partially have positive and significant influence to buyng decisions. Based on F test result, it is obtained F count value of 2.908 2.694 with sig 0.013 0.05 , show Ho rejected and Ha accepted, meaning price and product differentiation simultaneously have positive and significant effect to variable buying decision. R Square value obtained of 0.834. To see the big influence of independent variable to dependent variable by calculating coefficient of determination (KD) = R2 x 100%, So obtained KD= 83.40% of buying decision (dependent variable) can be explained by price and product differentiation. The remaining 16.60% is influenced by oter factors not described in this study.