Language and the Grand Tour

Reviewed by: Language and the Grand Tour: Linguistic Experiences of Travelling in Early Modern Europe by Arturo Tosi Weiao Xing Language and the Grand Tour: Linguistic Experiences of Travelling in Early Modern Europe. By Arturo Tosi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2020. xiv+306 pp. £85. ISBN 978–1–108–48727–6. In 1764, the young Scot James Boswell took the opportunity to converse with Voltaire during his visit to France. He asked the Enlightenment giant if he still spoke English. 'No', Voltaire joked, 'to speak English one must place the tongue between the teeth[,] and I have lost my teeth' (p. vi). Starting from this anecdote, Arturo Tosiʼs book depicts the linguistic experiences of Grand Tour travellers. The author adopts the broad definition of 'Grand Tour' that spans from the sixteenth century to the dawn of the nineteenth. Over three hundred years, Anglophones crossing the Channel for educational sojourns in France and Italy were the protagonists of mobility. Scrutinizing their letters, memoirs, and travel accounts, Tosi elucidates how these travellers acquired foreign tongues and responded to the immersion environment. At the frontier of contact, many travellers tasted exotic cultures and recorded their translingual experiences. Their varied language proficiency and cultural attitudes further mirrored the linguistic panorama of early modern Europe. [End Page 284] In the vibrant scholarship of the Grand Tour, social and cultural historians rarely give centre stage to the linguistic experiences of travellers who visited different European speech communities. Tosi, as a sociolinguist, takes language learning, contact, and diversity as his key themes (p. 21) and casts new light on linguistic pedagogies, including literary and non-literary approaches (pp. 84–88). In the early phase of the Grand Tour, various educational sources covering conversation manuals underpinned multilingual experiences in the heyday of the eighteenth century (John Gallagher, Learning Languages in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), p. 158). Through borrowings, loanwords, and code-switching, Tosi exemplifies the dynamic nature of language contact during the Grand Tour. In this process, travellers not only acquired and used foreign languages but also witnessed the rich linguistic diversity, from vernaculars to variations of spoken Latin. Another highlight of this work lies in its attempt to connect translingual practice with intercultural communication in the Grand Tour. Before approaching his linguistic investigation, Tosi addresses the core question of 'the relationship between motivation for language acquisition and attitudes to foreigners' (p. 25). During their tours, a few Anglophone travellers faked their identities by passing themselves off as native speakers (p. 59). More travellers, whether proficient in foreign tongues or not, encountered cultural shocks from 'eccentric' customs such as cicisbeo (p. 75), and were apt to stereotype national characters (p. 25). These observations also foreground the issue of gender, as female travellers were no longer rare during the late eighteenth century. Compared with their male counterparts, they usually attached more attention to cultural diversity and otherness (p. 248). Noticeably, boundaries between these linguistic and cultural issues are confluent but not non-existent. Some discussions, such as the figure of the castrato (pp. 77–79), seemingly relate more to cultural awareness than languages per se, and their relations with linguistic experiences invite a closer examination. In general, this inspiring monograph illuminates sociolinguistic aspects of travel experiences, substantially contributing to social and cultural debates about the Grand Tour. It contains rich evidence that showcases intriguing stories of travellers, such as the young Robert Boyle and Edward Gibbon, who lodged in continental Europe for their intellectual cultivation. The author casts these personal encounters within the frame of major linguistic issues in early modern Europe. For instance, travel records detailed the decline of Latin as a lingua franca and the rise of vernaculars in competition (p. 168). In the late eighteenth century, the monolingual complacency that hindered travellers' second-language proficiency took root in the prevailing national superiority (p. 166). Some references, such as Lady Montaguʼs visit to the Ottoman lands (p. 245), provoke readers to ponder non-European contexts, and the transition into the modern age (p. 257) raises concerns about the continuity and mutation of these early modern linguistic experiences. In this [End Page 285] sense, thanks to its inclusive horizons, this...

هدف از انجام این پژوهش، بررسی و نقد آرای پیشین در پیوند با تمایز میان زبان و گویش و بررسی وضعیت گونۀ گیلکی از دو دیدگاه زبان‌شناختی و غیر زبان‌شناختی است. داده­های این پژوهش کیفی، بر پایة شم زبانی نگارنده و در صورت لزوم، با مراجعه به سخن‌گویان بیشتر و منابع مکتوب گیلکی گردآوری شده­­اند. نخست، نشان دادیم که هیچ گونه اجماعی بین زبان‌شناسان در مورد معیارهایی که بتوان بر اساس آن‌ها وضعیت گونه ­های زبانی را تعیین کرد وجود ندارد و معیارهای پیشین مطرح شده دچار اشکال­های اساسی هستند. سپس، استدلال کردیم که با توجه به شرایط حاکم زبانی، اجتماعی، سیاسی و با توجه به کارکرد گیلکی در جامعۀ زبانی ایران، این گونۀ زبانی از منظر غیر زبان‌شناختی گویش محسوب می­شود؛ اما از منظر زبانشناختی، گیلگی زبان است، زیرا تفاوت­های متعدد آوایی، صرفی، نحوی و معنی­ شناختی/ کاربردشناختی بین گیلکی اشکورات و فارسی معیار و حتی در مواردی بین گونه ­های مختلف گیلکی وجود دارد و این تفاوت­ها سبب می­گردد که فارسی ­زبانان قادر به فهم سخنگویان گیلکی اشکورات نباشند. بنابراین، یافته‌های حاصل از بررسی وضعیت یک گونۀ زبانی از منظرهای متفاوت ضروتا یک‌دیگر را تأیید نمی­ کنند و می­توانند در تعارض با یک‌دیگر باشند.

Women and warfare is an emerging field in early modern history with a rapidly growing historiography. Art historians and cultural historians have been captivated by images of feminine martial power that deploy the figures of Athena, Minerva, Diana the Huntress, Judith, and Amazons. Much of the historical literature has focused on queens, regents, and female power in early modern royal states. Political and gender historians have examined powerful female rulers and regents such as Mary of Hungary, Margaret of Parma, and Infanta Isabella in the Habsburg Low Countries; Mary I Tudor and Elizabeth I Tudor in England; Marie de Guise and Mary Stuart in Scotland; Catherine de’ Medici, Maria de’ Medici, and Anne of Austria in France; and Amalia Elizabeth in Hesse—who all engaged in military planning and diplomacy. Historians and gender studies scholars are now setting these women warriors and powerful queens into a much broader context of women, gender, and war in early modern Europe. Noblewomen, city women, and peasant women were all swept up into the maelstrom of war in early modern Europe. This bibliographical essay brings together diverse historiographies of women’s history, gender history, history of sexuality, art history, literary history, history of violence, and war and society history. The essay includes sources on women, gender, and warfare in peasant revolts, urban revolts, noble revolts, civil wars, religious wars, and colonial wars, as well as in conventional interstate wars and coalition wars. An initial section discusses General Overviews and historical surveys of women, gender, and war in early modern Europe. A section on Theoretical and Comparative Studies of Gender and War outlines diverse methodological approaches to studying the subject. Brief sections on Reference Works, Textbooks and Pedagogical Sources, Anthologies, and Journals discuss research and teaching tools in the field. A thematic section on Women, Power, and War in Early Modern Europe goes beyond biographical studies to examine gendered dynamics of authority, agency, and power in the early modern period. Women rulers directed warfare and negotiated peace in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Artistic images and literary representations shaped notions of women and war that influenced contemporary political culture. Women and War in the Renaissance and Reformation (1450s-1550s) then considers women and gender in the Italian Wars and in religious and social conflicts during the Reformation era. Another section on Women and Gender in the European Wars of Religion (1550s-1650s) examines women’s experiences and gender dynamics in the French Wars of Religion, Dutch Revolt, Thirty Years’ War, and British Civil Wars. Gendered dynamics of violence in early modern maritime empires are considered in a section on Women, Gender, and Violence in Maritime Empires, focusing on the Portuguese, Spanish, British, and Dutch empires. Indigenous peoples’ experiences of slavery and colonial warfare are contemplated, along with maritime raiding, privateering, and piracy. Gender in Military Culture considers how gender and honor culture fueled familial and social conflict through dueling, feuds, and vendettas. Military organizations promoted specific forms of masculinity and notions of armed service. Women participated in the “campaign communities” that formed around field armies as soldiers’ wives, sutlers, peddlers, and prostitutes. Another section on Gender and Early Modern State Development (1640s-1700s) examines how the rise of permanent armies in the seventeenth century transformed military culture, gradually pushing women out of the military sphere. The section also surveys women and war in the Ottoman expansion, Russian imperial and Eastern European warfare, and French wars of expansion during the reign of Louis XIV. A final section on Women and Atrocities in Early Modern Warfare contemplates women’s suffering from rape, pillage, and massacre. Discussions of women’s status in warfare and attempts to restrain violence against non-combatants drove the development of laws of war in early modern Europe. Warfare was pervasive in early modern Europe, affecting entire states and societies in profound ways. This bibliographic essay provides an introduction to the myriad connections between war, gender, and society in early modern societies. I would like thank Alexander Sosenko, a Ph.D. candidate in history at Northern Illinois University who served as my graduate research assistant, for his assistance in identifying sources for this bibliographic essay.

Reviewed by: La Tragédie et ses marges: penser le théâtre sérieux en Europe (XVIe—XVIIe siècles) by Florence d'Artois and Anne Teulade Esther Van Dyke Florence d'Artois et Anne Teulade, directeurs. La Tragédie et ses marges: penser le théâtre sérieux en Europe (XVIe—XVIIe siècles) droz, 2017. 464 pp to explore the edges of a thing allows us to establish our understanding of its existence. This is the motivation for the contributing authors of La Tragédie et ses marges as they probe, question, and expand the edges of tragedy. The main intention of this book is to destabilize the definition of tragedy as it has historically been perceived in early modern Europe. As indicated in the introduction, the variety of approaches creates a cartography of the genre, exploring its uncharted margins and borders, thus questioning the traditional hierarchy between tragedy and comedy and placing tragedy into lively conversation with other historically "lesser" genres such as tragicomedy and the pastoral. Much in the vein of work by Paul Bénichou, Alain Viala, and John Lyons, this volume creates a scholarly perspective that shakes the rigidity that so often exemplifies the neoclassical tragedy of early modern Europe, with its rootedness in Aristotle's Poetics. As editors of and contributors to this volume, Florence d'Artois and Anne Teulade use their backgrounds in Spanish and comparative literatures, respectively, to create a unique angle in the approach of the book, which includes a variety of scholars from a range of European universities. Almost all the contributing authors have this in common: they originate from or teach a different literature than their country of residence. Because of this cross-cultural lens, their interpretations of primary sources are rich and varied, covering a wide linguistic, academic, and literary perspective. The works explored in this book include selections from Spanish, Italian, German, British, and French literatures. However, it would have been useful to have representatives of non- European universities; there are many specialists from the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, or other regions who could have contributed another angle to the complexities of rigidly defined tragedy. Nonetheless, the variety of [End Page 195] perspectives serves to create a cartography, mapping out how genre was defined through national literatures of similar eras. The biographical information on each author is limited (most likely due to the large number of contributors), but sufficient enough to enable further research for scholars looking to begin a preliminary study in the definition of genre in early modern European theater. The volume is separated into four main sections, dealing respectively with the subjects of theoretical and non-theoretical approaches, translations and imitations of ancient tragedy, hybridizations of genre, and confrontations between tragedy and its wider cultural context. These are subdivided into chapters, which in turn are each comprised of two to five articles. The first main section (chapters 1–2) provides an overview of theoretical, or academic, treatises versus a non-theoretical, or popular, definition of tragedy in early modern Europe. The articles in chapter 1, written by Florence d'Artois and Enrica Zanin, set the stage for how early modern tragedy was defined, examining its ethical, moral, or aesthetic purpose through the lens of various interpretations of Aristotle's Poetics in Italy and France. Zanin's article in particular examines the contested definition of tragedy in these different milieux. It is during this rebirth of the Poetics' critical authority that we begin to see the rigid crystallization of tragedy, resulting in the more ambiguous forms of theater (such as tragedies with a non-tragic end) being excised or suppressed from the category of tragedy. However, as Zanin's article reveals, there was often pushback (sometimes violent) that responded to this suppression. Chapter 2, with articles by François Lecercle and Lise Michel, juxtaposes the academic and popular perspective of tragedy. Both articles in this chapter look at definitions of genre: Lecercle's focuses on the ambiguity of the word comédie in seventeenth-century France, and Michel's examines the emergence of the spectator-as-critic to various kinds of tragedy. Lecercle's article in particular introduces two of the main...

First published in 1985, this is a history of the Grand Tour, undertaken by young men in the eighteenth century to complete their education - a tour usually to France, Italy and Switzerland, and sometimes encompassing Germany. Rather than being another popular treatment of the theme, this is a scholarly analysis of the motives, purposes, activities and achievements of those who made the Grand Tour. The book considers to what extent the Grand Tour did fulfil its theoretical educational function, or whether travellers merely parroted the observations of their guidebooks. It also indicates the importance of the Grand Tour in introducing foreign customs into Britain and extending the cosmopolitanism of the European upper classes.&nbsp

A sociolinguistic analysis of final /s/ in Miami Cuban Spanish

Part I: Introduction:. On Language, Change, and Language Change -- Or, Of History, Linguistics, and Historical Linguistics: Richard D. Janda & Brian D. Joseph, both The Ohio State University. Part II: Methods for Studying Language Change: . 1. The Comparative Method: Robert L. Rankin, University of Kansas. 2. On the Limits of the Comparative Method: S.P. Harrison, University of Western Australia. 3. Internal Reconstruction: Don Ringe, University of Pennsylvania. 4. How to Show Languages are Related: Methods for Distant Genetic Relationship: Lyle Campbell, University of Canterbury, New Zealand. 5. Diversity and Stability in Language: Johanna Nichols, University of California, Berkeley. Part III: Phonological Change:. 6. The Phonological Basis of Sound Change: Paul Kiparsky, Stanford University. 7. Neogrammarian Sound Change: Mark Hale, Concordia University. 8. Variationist Approaches to Phonological Change: Gregory R. Guy, York University. 9. Phonologization as the Start of Dephoneticization -- Or, On Sound--Change and its Aftermath: Of Extension, Generalization, Lexicalization, and Morphologization: Richard D. Janda, The Ohio State University. Part IV: Morphological and Lexical Change: . 10. Analogy: The Warp and Woof of Cognition: Raimo Anttila, University of California, Los Angeles. 11. Analogical Change: Hans Henrich Hock, University of Illinois, Urbana--Champaign. 12. Naturalness and Morphological Change: Wolfgang U. Dressler, Vienna University. 13. Morphologization from Syntax: Brian D. Joseph, The Ohio State University. Part V: Syntactic Change: . 14. Grammatical Approaches to Syntactic Change: David Lightfoot, Georgetown University. 15. Variationist Approaches to Syntactic Change: Susan Pintzuk, University of York. 16. Cross--linguistic Perspectives on Syntactic Change: Alice C. Harris, Vanderbilt University. 17. Functional Perspectives on Syntactic Change: Marianne Mithun, University of California, Santa Barbara. Part VI: Pragmatico--Semantic Change:. 18. Grammaticalization: Bernd Heine, University of Cologne. 19. Mechanisms of Change in Grammaticization: The Role of Frequency: Joan Bybee, University of New Mexico. 20. Constructions in Grammaticalization: Elizabeth Closs Traugott, Stanford University. 21. An Approach to Semantic Change: Benjamin W. Fortson, IV. Part VII: Explaining Linguistic Change:. 22. Phonetics and Historical Phonology: John J. Ohala, University of California, Berkeley. 23. Contact as a Source of Language Change: Sarah Grey Thomason, University of Pittsburgh. 24. Dialectology and Linguistic Diffusion: Walt Wolfram & Natalie Schilling--Estes, North Carolina State University and Georgetown University. 25. Psycholinguistic Perspectives on Linguistic Change: Jean Aitchison, University of Oxford. Bibliography. Subject Index. Name Index. Language Index.

Annibal Guasco. Discourse to Lady Lavinia His Daughter: Concerning the Manner in Which She Should Conduct Herself When Going to Court as a Lady-in-Waiting to the Most Serene Infanta, Lady Caterina, Duchess of Savoy. The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe. Ed. and trans. Peggy Osborn. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press 2003. xxix + 145 pp. index. append. illus. bibl. $45 (cl), $18 (pbk). ISBN: 0-226-31053-1 (cl), 0-226-31055-8 (pbk). - Olympia Morata. The Complete Writings of an Italian Heretic. The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe. Ed. and trans. Holt N. Parker. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press 2003. xxxiv + 175 pp. index. append. illus. bibl. $60 (cl), $22.50 (pbk). ISBN: 0-226-53668-8 (cl), 0-226-53669-6 (pbk). - Volume 58 Issue 1

This article examines the issue of national and linguistic identities with regard to the perplexing punishment of the whore in John Marston’s The Dutch Courtesan. At the end of the comedy, Franceschina is sentenced to the gallows while other characters forgive each other and it seems her banishment from the stage world has a parallel with the punishment of Shylock in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. Such a problematic ending defines the play as a Jacobean problem comedy or a tragic-comedy. The play was written just after James I’s accession to the English throne and was performed at the Inns of Court in 1605. It was a time when London, as a center of global commerce in early modern Europe, acted as a locus of multi-nationalism in which national identity was constantly questioned in affiliation with language and its standardization. In particular, the accession raised the establishment of one particular language because both English and Scottish were used in the court, and ultimately betrayed the anxieties of the Jacobeans and their concers about linguistic corruption and the consequent issue of language as a barometer of national identity. In this context, Franceschina is a true embodiment of monstrous hybridity in language, which is clearly materialized on stage by her helter-skelter accent. Even from her first appearance, she is set apart from the other characters that use English without much in the way of strange accent. The corruption of her language is related to the abuse of her body by her male customers, which undermines the binary world view of Freevill who attempts to preserve his own domestic household far from a common public world of prostitution. In the body politic of early modern England, Franceschina is not only a being that is constantly conscious of her otherness due to the monstrous hybridity of her tongue but also the other who is victimized in the anxiety of national, cultural and linguistic identities.

Hull (1988) uses recent developments in the theory of biological evolution, in particular rigorous application of the population theory of species, a consistently phylogenetic approach to evolutionary taxonomy and a proposed resolution of the dispute over which levels natural selection operates, to propose a general analysis of selection processes which he then applies to conceptual change in science. Hull's model of selection is applied to language change. It is argued that the utterance plays the central role in linguistic selection, and causal mechanisms by which linguistic selection – language change – occurs are proposed. The final sections consider the possibility that selection occurs also at higher levels of linguistic organization, and suggest how language contact may be accounted for in terms of phylogenetic reticulation.

Göz Kaufmann, who obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Heidelberg, Germany, in 1997, completed his habilitation treatise in 2016 and received the venia legendi (livre docência) in German Linguistics from the University of Freiburg, Germany. He holds a permanent position as a senior lecturer (Akademischer Oberrat) for linguistics in the German Department of the University of Freiburg. Kaufmann’s main research areas are sociolinguistics, language contact, language variation, and language change. In the area of language variation and change, his focus is on German minority varieties spoken in South America, particularly Mennonite Low German and Pomerano. Aside from lexical and morphological variation, he analyzes syntactic variation in these varieties combining variationist and generative approaches. Göz Kaufmann worked in Brazil as a guest professor and representative of the DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) at the UFRGS and the USP. At the University of Pelotas (UFPel), he has already taught several courses and presented numerous talks. For more information, see http://paul.igl.uni-freiburg.de/kaufmann/?Home

industrialization'. Both of the major accounts in English of the historical geography of early modern and modern Europe (C. T. Smith's An Historical Geography of Western Europe before 1800 and N. J. G. Pounds's An Historical Geography of Europe 1500-1840) contain whole chapters on mining and manufacturing in this critical period. The more specialized regional and national monographs, such as A. M. Lambert's The Making of the Dutch Landscape, H. D. Clout's Themes in the Historical Geography of France and Agriculture in France on the Eve ofthe Railway Age, provide evidence for and maps of the widespread occurrence of rural and urban industries. At the sub-continental scale or level of description and analysis it is difficult, if not impossible, to focus on the finer details of the interactions of social reproduction and industrial production processes, that is at sub-regional, local and even household levels. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that the explanation in such larger-scale accounts tends to focus on resource bases, environmental influences (via agricultural systems), available technology, and to make fairly general references to markets, although a tighter and more overt conceptual framework could be employed, notwithstanding the bewildering complexity of types of industrial activity and organization to be found in 'pre-industrial' Europe. The question of scale (which should not need stressing to geographers) is of paramount importance for a fuller understanding of the nature of industrial pursuits in pre-industrial Europe, and needs to accommodate processes operating over a whole range of scales, from very small to very large, from the daily time-budgets and seasonal employment rhythms of peasant and artisanal households to the concept of the articulation of large-scale capital movements and influences at the level of the 'world economy'. Human and historical geographers on the whole have been reluctant to grasp this problem, and the corresponding recognition that hierarchies or nests of scales are involved. Most recent work on the theory and reality of early industrial activity in Europe has been by social and economic historians attempting to understand a major aspect of early modern and modern Europe, namely, the process of what (since 1972) -* Professor R. A. Butlin is Dean of the School of Human and Environmental Studies, University of Technology, Loughborough, LE11 3TU. This paper was delivered at a Technical Meeting held on 11 February 1985 in the Society's House, with Professor R. Lawton in the Chair.

Whether language change is abrupt or gradual has been debated by many scholars. Taking Hanzhong dialect as the research object, this paper holds that language change is not just gradual but also abrupt, and proves the gradualness from five points and abruptness from four points. Gradualness and abruptness are mainly caused by language contact and immigration. In the long history, Hanzhong has experienced countless natural and man-made disasters such as war and famine. People’s frequent movements inevitably result in language contact and frequent migration further intensify language evolution.

Once the object of consensus, every aspect of the traditional account of early modern Europe as an anarchic system of sovereign states is now debated—from the existence of sovereign states to the notion of anarchy, and even the European limits of that system. In the context of these disagreements, I develop a new account of international order in early modern Europe grounded in the perceptions of historical actors. I first argue that this can be achieved by studying the tools that practitioners relied on to describe and organize political authority in the world. I subsequently delve into a common, though seldom-studied, tool developed by a group of practitioners known as masters of ceremonies: courtly ceremonial (or ius praecedentiae). I make three substantive claims. First, the political authorities identified in manuals on courtly ceremonial were primarily crowns and republics, but in the later eighteenth century, all eventually came to be described as “states.” Second, all political authorities stood in a hierarchy determined by a specific set of criteria I identify, but new criteria—power and sovereignty—emerged over the course of the eighteenth century. Third, the scope of international order was not self-evident, and it certainly did not have clear “European” limits in the eyes of masters of ceremonies; non-European political authorities could easily be integrated into their orders of precedence. Ultimately, I suggest that IR scholars should reconsider why they study early modern Europe and how they study international orders.

In April 2010, a group of scholars convened at the University of Auckland to discuss 'Miracles, Medicine, and Magic in Medieval and Early Modern Europe'. Among the speakers, many focused on magic. As they engaged with and challenged existing scholarship, one theme recurred with special frequency: the systems of thought that made the different notions of magic thinkable. This Special Issue of Parergon is the result of those exchanges, bringing together articles that explore how magic was imagined in England, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland between the late fourteenth and late seventeenth centuries. This Introduction, with its brief survey of recent scholarship, is intended to offer context, scholarly and historical, for the articles, each of which seeks in some way to reconstruct the overlapping mental structures within which magic seemed plausible to contemporary observers.