Lawyers in Early Modern Europe and America

Women and warfare is an emerging field in early modern history with a rapidly growing historiography. Art historians and cultural historians have been captivated by images of feminine martial power that deploy the figures of Athena, Minerva, Diana the Huntress, Judith, and Amazons. Much of the historical literature has focused on queens, regents, and female power in early modern royal states. Political and gender historians have examined powerful female rulers and regents such as Mary of Hungary, Margaret of Parma, and Infanta Isabella in the Habsburg Low Countries; Mary I Tudor and Elizabeth I Tudor in England; Marie de Guise and Mary Stuart in Scotland; Catherine de’ Medici, Maria de’ Medici, and Anne of Austria in France; and Amalia Elizabeth in Hesse—who all engaged in military planning and diplomacy. Historians and gender studies scholars are now setting these women warriors and powerful queens into a much broader context of women, gender, and war in early modern Europe. Noblewomen, city women, and peasant women were all swept up into the maelstrom of war in early modern Europe. This bibliographical essay brings together diverse historiographies of women’s history, gender history, history of sexuality, art history, literary history, history of violence, and war and society history. The essay includes sources on women, gender, and warfare in peasant revolts, urban revolts, noble revolts, civil wars, religious wars, and colonial wars, as well as in conventional interstate wars and coalition wars. An initial section discusses General Overviews and historical surveys of women, gender, and war in early modern Europe. A section on Theoretical and Comparative Studies of Gender and War outlines diverse methodological approaches to studying the subject. Brief sections on Reference Works, Textbooks and Pedagogical Sources, Anthologies, and Journals discuss research and teaching tools in the field. A thematic section on Women, Power, and War in Early Modern Europe goes beyond biographical studies to examine gendered dynamics of authority, agency, and power in the early modern period. Women rulers directed warfare and negotiated peace in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Artistic images and literary representations shaped notions of women and war that influenced contemporary political culture. Women and War in the Renaissance and Reformation (1450s-1550s) then considers women and gender in the Italian Wars and in religious and social conflicts during the Reformation era. Another section on Women and Gender in the European Wars of Religion (1550s-1650s) examines women’s experiences and gender dynamics in the French Wars of Religion, Dutch Revolt, Thirty Years’ War, and British Civil Wars. Gendered dynamics of violence in early modern maritime empires are considered in a section on Women, Gender, and Violence in Maritime Empires, focusing on the Portuguese, Spanish, British, and Dutch empires. Indigenous peoples’ experiences of slavery and colonial warfare are contemplated, along with maritime raiding, privateering, and piracy. Gender in Military Culture considers how gender and honor culture fueled familial and social conflict through dueling, feuds, and vendettas. Military organizations promoted specific forms of masculinity and notions of armed service. Women participated in the “campaign communities” that formed around field armies as soldiers’ wives, sutlers, peddlers, and prostitutes. Another section on Gender and Early Modern State Development (1640s-1700s) examines how the rise of permanent armies in the seventeenth century transformed military culture, gradually pushing women out of the military sphere. The section also surveys women and war in the Ottoman expansion, Russian imperial and Eastern European warfare, and French wars of expansion during the reign of Louis XIV. A final section on Women and Atrocities in Early Modern Warfare contemplates women’s suffering from rape, pillage, and massacre. Discussions of women’s status in warfare and attempts to restrain violence against non-combatants drove the development of laws of war in early modern Europe. Warfare was pervasive in early modern Europe, affecting entire states and societies in profound ways. This bibliographic essay provides an introduction to the myriad connections between war, gender, and society in early modern societies. I would like thank Alexander Sosenko, a Ph.D. candidate in history at Northern Illinois University who served as my graduate research assistant, for his assistance in identifying sources for this bibliographic essay.

Reviewed by: Language and the Grand Tour: Linguistic Experiences of Travelling in Early Modern Europe by Arturo Tosi Weiao Xing Language and the Grand Tour: Linguistic Experiences of Travelling in Early Modern Europe. By Arturo Tosi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2020. xiv+306 pp. £85. ISBN 978–1–108–48727–6. In 1764, the young Scot James Boswell took the opportunity to converse with Voltaire during his visit to France. He asked the Enlightenment giant if he still spoke English. 'No', Voltaire joked, 'to speak English one must place the tongue between the teeth[,] and I have lost my teeth' (p. vi). Starting from this anecdote, Arturo Tosiʼs book depicts the linguistic experiences of Grand Tour travellers. The author adopts the broad definition of 'Grand Tour' that spans from the sixteenth century to the dawn of the nineteenth. Over three hundred years, Anglophones crossing the Channel for educational sojourns in France and Italy were the protagonists of mobility. Scrutinizing their letters, memoirs, and travel accounts, Tosi elucidates how these travellers acquired foreign tongues and responded to the immersion environment. At the frontier of contact, many travellers tasted exotic cultures and recorded their translingual experiences. Their varied language proficiency and cultural attitudes further mirrored the linguistic panorama of early modern Europe. [End Page 284] In the vibrant scholarship of the Grand Tour, social and cultural historians rarely give centre stage to the linguistic experiences of travellers who visited different European speech communities. Tosi, as a sociolinguist, takes language learning, contact, and diversity as his key themes (p. 21) and casts new light on linguistic pedagogies, including literary and non-literary approaches (pp. 84–88). In the early phase of the Grand Tour, various educational sources covering conversation manuals underpinned multilingual experiences in the heyday of the eighteenth century (John Gallagher, Learning Languages in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), p. 158). Through borrowings, loanwords, and code-switching, Tosi exemplifies the dynamic nature of language contact during the Grand Tour. In this process, travellers not only acquired and used foreign languages but also witnessed the rich linguistic diversity, from vernaculars to variations of spoken Latin. Another highlight of this work lies in its attempt to connect translingual practice with intercultural communication in the Grand Tour. Before approaching his linguistic investigation, Tosi addresses the core question of 'the relationship between motivation for language acquisition and attitudes to foreigners' (p. 25). During their tours, a few Anglophone travellers faked their identities by passing themselves off as native speakers (p. 59). More travellers, whether proficient in foreign tongues or not, encountered cultural shocks from 'eccentric' customs such as cicisbeo (p. 75), and were apt to stereotype national characters (p. 25). These observations also foreground the issue of gender, as female travellers were no longer rare during the late eighteenth century. Compared with their male counterparts, they usually attached more attention to cultural diversity and otherness (p. 248). Noticeably, boundaries between these linguistic and cultural issues are confluent but not non-existent. Some discussions, such as the figure of the castrato (pp. 77–79), seemingly relate more to cultural awareness than languages per se, and their relations with linguistic experiences invite a closer examination. In general, this inspiring monograph illuminates sociolinguistic aspects of travel experiences, substantially contributing to social and cultural debates about the Grand Tour. It contains rich evidence that showcases intriguing stories of travellers, such as the young Robert Boyle and Edward Gibbon, who lodged in continental Europe for their intellectual cultivation. The author casts these personal encounters within the frame of major linguistic issues in early modern Europe. For instance, travel records detailed the decline of Latin as a lingua franca and the rise of vernaculars in competition (p. 168). In the late eighteenth century, the monolingual complacency that hindered travellers' second-language proficiency took root in the prevailing national superiority (p. 166). Some references, such as Lady Montaguʼs visit to the Ottoman lands (p. 245), provoke readers to ponder non-European contexts, and the transition into the modern age (p. 257) raises concerns about the continuity and mutation of these early modern linguistic experiences. In this [End Page 285] sense, thanks to its inclusive horizons, this...

Journal Article The Virgilian Tradition: Book History and the History of Reading in Early Modern Europe. By Craig Kallendorf. Get access The Virgilian Tradition: Book History and the History of Reading in Early Modern Europe. By Craig Kallendorf. (Variorum Collected Studies Series, 885.) Aldershot: Ashgate. 2007. xiv + 304 pages. £62.50. isbn978 0 7546 5923 5. M. C. Davies M. C. Davies London Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The Library, Volume 9, Issue 3, September 2008, Pages 350–351, https://doi.org/10.1093/library/9.3.350 Published: 23 October 2008

Konrad Ottenheym, Krista De Jonge, and Monique Chatenet, editors Public Buildings in Early Modern Europe Architectura Moderna 9. Turnhout: Brepols, 2010, xiv + 408 pp., 300 b/w illus. €110 (paper), ISBN 9782503533544 Most buildings in this book will be unfamiliar even to scholars of early modern architecture: these public buildings, such as city halls or market arcades, often count among the happy discoveries of sightseeing in European cities after visiting better-known churches and palaces. A good guidebook might give the names of the architects and dates of the construction campaigns, but if curious to learn more, information about such buildings is often found only in national or regional inventories of historic monuments based on painstaking research by local scholars. Public Buildings in Early Modern Europe furnishes a broad international panorama of such noteworthy early modern urban structures, presenting thirty essays uniting otherwise scattered material on these hard-working building types of late pre-industrial society. The Architectura Moderna series, initiated in 2002, aims to explore architectural exchanges and influences within northern and central Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The essays collected in the series’ ninth volume were originally presented at two related conferences held in Utrecht in 2006 and 2008 under the general title “Public Buildings in Early Modern Europe.”1 Their chronology spans 1400 to 1800, with the major geographical emphasis on the Low Countries, France, and the German lands; Italy, England, Scotland, Denmark, Poland, Dalmatia, Spain, Portugal, and Dutch overseas colonies are also represented. Most articles are in English, but eight are in French, and one each in German and Spanish. The term public buildings is problematic, as book and series coeditor Krista De Jonge admits in her foreword (vii). While many buildings treated here are public in the sense that they were commissioned by and for various civic or governmental bodies, others were commissioned by private or institutional patrons, served a limited group of users, or had restricted access, and thus were arguably “private.” Coeditor Konrad Ottenheym’s introduction opens …

Annibal Guasco. Discourse to Lady Lavinia His Daughter: Concerning the Manner in Which She Should Conduct Herself When Going to Court as a Lady-in-Waiting to the Most Serene Infanta, Lady Caterina, Duchess of Savoy. The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe. Ed. and trans. Peggy Osborn. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press 2003. xxix + 145 pp. index. append. illus. bibl. $45 (cl), $18 (pbk). ISBN: 0-226-31053-1 (cl), 0-226-31055-8 (pbk). - Olympia Morata. The Complete Writings of an Italian Heretic. The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe. Ed. and trans. Holt N. Parker. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press 2003. xxxiv + 175 pp. index. append. illus. bibl. $60 (cl), $22.50 (pbk). ISBN: 0-226-53668-8 (cl), 0-226-53669-6 (pbk). - Volume 58 Issue 1

Using a three-part structure focused on the major historical subjects of the Inquisition, the Reformation and witchcraft, Christopher Kissane examines the relationship between food and religion in early modern Europe. Food, Religion and Communities in Early Modern Europe employs three key case studies in Castile, Zurich and Shetland to explore what food can reveal about the wider social and cultural history of early modern communities undergoing religious upheaval. Issues of identity, gender, cultural symbolism and community relations are analysed in a number of different contexts. The book also surveys the place of food in history and argues the need for historians not only to think more about food, but also with food in order to gain novel insights into historical issues. This is an important study for food historians and anyone seeking to understand the significant issues and events in early modern Europe from a fresh perspective.

Notes on Contributors

Journal Article More Than a Coincidence? The Arrival of Arsenic and the Disappearance of Plague in Early Modern Europe Get access KARI KONKOLA KARI KONKOLA Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Volume 47, Issue 2, April 1992, Pages 186–209, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhmas/47.2.186 Published: 01 April 1992

industrialization'. Both of the major accounts in English of the historical geography of early modern and modern Europe (C. T. Smith's An Historical Geography of Western Europe before 1800 and N. J. G. Pounds's An Historical Geography of Europe 1500-1840) contain whole chapters on mining and manufacturing in this critical period. The more specialized regional and national monographs, such as A. M. Lambert's The Making of the Dutch Landscape, H. D. Clout's Themes in the Historical Geography of France and Agriculture in France on the Eve ofthe Railway Age, provide evidence for and maps of the widespread occurrence of rural and urban industries. At the sub-continental scale or level of description and analysis it is difficult, if not impossible, to focus on the finer details of the interactions of social reproduction and industrial production processes, that is at sub-regional, local and even household levels. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that the explanation in such larger-scale accounts tends to focus on resource bases, environmental influences (via agricultural systems), available technology, and to make fairly general references to markets, although a tighter and more overt conceptual framework could be employed, notwithstanding the bewildering complexity of types of industrial activity and organization to be found in 'pre-industrial' Europe. The question of scale (which should not need stressing to geographers) is of paramount importance for a fuller understanding of the nature of industrial pursuits in pre-industrial Europe, and needs to accommodate processes operating over a whole range of scales, from very small to very large, from the daily time-budgets and seasonal employment rhythms of peasant and artisanal households to the concept of the articulation of large-scale capital movements and influences at the level of the 'world economy'. Human and historical geographers on the whole have been reluctant to grasp this problem, and the corresponding recognition that hierarchies or nests of scales are involved. Most recent work on the theory and reality of early industrial activity in Europe has been by social and economic historians attempting to understand a major aspect of early modern and modern Europe, namely, the process of what (since 1972) -* Professor R. A. Butlin is Dean of the School of Human and Environmental Studies, University of Technology, Loughborough, LE11 3TU. This paper was delivered at a Technical Meeting held on 11 February 1985 in the Society's House, with Professor R. Lawton in the Chair.

Once the object of consensus, every aspect of the traditional account of early modern Europe as an anarchic system of sovereign states is now debated—from the existence of sovereign states to the notion of anarchy, and even the European limits of that system. In the context of these disagreements, I develop a new account of international order in early modern Europe grounded in the perceptions of historical actors. I first argue that this can be achieved by studying the tools that practitioners relied on to describe and organize political authority in the world. I subsequently delve into a common, though seldom-studied, tool developed by a group of practitioners known as masters of ceremonies: courtly ceremonial (or ius praecedentiae). I make three substantive claims. First, the political authorities identified in manuals on courtly ceremonial were primarily crowns and republics, but in the later eighteenth century, all eventually came to be described as “states.” Second, all political authorities stood in a hierarchy determined by a specific set of criteria I identify, but new criteria—power and sovereignty—emerged over the course of the eighteenth century. Third, the scope of international order was not self-evident, and it certainly did not have clear “European” limits in the eyes of masters of ceremonies; non-European political authorities could easily be integrated into their orders of precedence. Ultimately, I suggest that IR scholars should reconsider why they study early modern Europe and how they study international orders.

In April 2010, a group of scholars convened at the University of Auckland to discuss 'Miracles, Medicine, and Magic in Medieval and Early Modern Europe'. Among the speakers, many focused on magic. As they engaged with and challenged existing scholarship, one theme recurred with special frequency: the systems of thought that made the different notions of magic thinkable. This Special Issue of Parergon is the result of those exchanges, bringing together articles that explore how magic was imagined in England, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland between the late fourteenth and late seventeenth centuries. This Introduction, with its brief survey of recent scholarship, is intended to offer context, scholarly and historical, for the articles, each of which seeks in some way to reconstruct the overlapping mental structures within which magic seemed plausible to contemporary observers.

Reviewed by: The Saint and the Chopped-Up Baby: The Cult of Vincent Ferrer in Medieval and Early Modern Europe by Laura Ackerman Smoller Michael Vargas The Saint and the Chopped-Up Baby: The Cult of Vincent Ferrer in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. By Laura Ackerman Smoller. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 2014. Pp. xx, 343. $45.00. ISBN 978-0-8014-5217-8.) The Dominican preacher Vincent Ferrer was an ardent critic of the Great Schism who nonetheless remained close to the Avignon pope, Benedict XIII, until nearly all others had abandoned him. A confidant of the count-kings of the Crown of Aragon, he (after Martin I died without an heir) helped shape the Compromise of Caspe that moved Catalonia into the Castilian orbit. Born in 1350, he died in 1419 in Vannes, where he was preaching at the invitation of the duke of Brittany. [End Page 819] In old age his fiery preaching and apocalyptic message attracted crowds of self-mutilating followers and caused riots that led to forced conversions and deaths. Despite all of this, Laura Ackerman Smoller turns our basic assumption of Ferrer’s profound importance on its head; perhaps his lasting influence is due not to his own achievements but to the powerful persons who promoted his saintliness to advance their own agendas. This book is not a biography but rather an assessment of the uses of recollection. Much of the book treats the politics and processes that led to Ferrer’s canonization in 1455, concentrating foremost on the canonization inquest at Vannes. The single “cult” of the book’s subtitle should be read in the plural, since it is one of Smoller’s central assertions—one for which she presents ample evidence—that there were a number of ways to read Ferrer’s sanctity after his death as well as various ways of promoting and acting upon the many readings. Smoller argues that Ferrer’s cause succeeded because powerful persons who had the money and political capacity to pursue their agendas saw that Ferrer’s canonization would serve them well. The canonization in 1450 of the Franciscan Bernardino of Siena lit a fire under the Dominicans that moved them to make claims for a new saint of their own; once they put their institutional muscle behind it, the canonization process moved along quickly. The dukes of Brittany similarly attached themselves to Ferrer in competition against French kings who quite usefully rode the coattails of St. Louis. The papacy and the Catalan count-kings had their own reasons for advancing Ferrer’s sainthood and their own stories to tell about why his saintliness mattered. Even ordinary people found ways of benefiting from the canonization fervor. Given the complexity of voices and interests, it seems no surprise to find evidence of “whitewashing” of Ferrer’s record, of leading witnesses along a preapproved script, and of a vita written to redress and obscure. The ample nuance and complexity here may leave some readers feeling that the book is disjointed or that they have occasionally lost the main line of argument. Others might want more or less substance in this or that citation or wish that some really good material was not relegated to sparse notes, as for example, in the story of the man who lost his intestines after murmuring against Ferrer. Smoller brings odd humor to her work when she describes the cooking of the chopped-up baby as Valencian paella and when she implies that Ferrer, after death, found several occasions to tell his supporters that he would do them some good once they succeeded in having him canonized. Quibbles and curiosities aside, the author has done well to let facts, legends, and evidentiary threads open one onto another into nets of questions and resources for future Ferrer studies. There is much to learn from this exemplary study of Ferrer’s afterlife. [End Page 820] Michael Vargas State University of New York at New Paltz Copyright © 2014 The Catholic University of America Press

J. Glete, War and the state in early modern Europe. Spain, the Dutch Republic and Sweden as fiscal-military states, 1500-1660 L. Greenfeld, The spirit of capitalism. Nationalism and economic growth Ph.S. Gorski, The disciplinary revolution. Calvinism and the rise of the state in early modern Europe J. Adams, The familial state. Ruling families and merchant capitalism in early modern Europe. Marjolein ’t Hart, Ruthless capitalists, skilful fiscalists, strategic fathers or disciplinedCalvinists? The Dutch Republic as a case studyThis article discusses four recent works by historical sociologists that use the Dutch Republic as a case-study in their comparative work. In studying large-scale processes such as state formation, economic growth and military development they highlight the importance of the interaction between central and local levels of government. The ‘bottom-up’ approach adopted by Adams (familial networks), Gorski (church disciplining), Greenfeld (orientation of entrepreneurs) and Glete (interests of local elites and organizations) is once again placed high of the research agenda. The Dutch Republic serves quite well as an interesting case from a comparative perspective.

This article introduces a special issue that explores public services in early modern Europe. It advocates a broad definition of early modern public services: all public facilities provided by (semi-) governments, churches, religious organizations, civic institutions, and individual citizens. Such a definition is more appropriate because most late medieval and early modern towns were civil societies in which services were provided and financed by myriad agencies, institutions, corporations, and individuals who were part of the city. Early modern public services were thus shaped and formed by conceptions of common good, citizenship, and urban community. Such characteristics were by no means static. Reallocations of facilities in premodern cities resulted from a complex set of demographic, economic, social, political, and personal causes. Although significant changes in the system of provisioning occurred during the early modern period, such alterations were always firmly rooted in traditional conceptions of how the common interest should be best served.

Jewish Thought and Scientific Discovery in Early Modern Europe Noah J. Efron Almost a quarter-century ago Benjamin Nelson published his famous plea for what he called a “differential” and “comparative historical sociology of ‘science’ in civilizational perspective.” 1 Like Max Weber, Robert Merton, and Joseph Needham, Nelson believed that the growth of western science could be better understood when compared to the ways “science” fared in other cultures with other intellectual and institutional and economic sensibilities and structures. A particularly propitious case study for such a differential and comparative historical study of science, as Hillel Levine observed in his 1983 essay about Jewish reactions to heliocentrism, are the Jews of early modern Europe, who constituted “a society geographically and culturally contiguous with those who framed and advanced occidental ‘science.’” 2 Since about the time of Nelson’s plea, David B. Ruderman has been writing the history of Jewish attitudes towards, and engagements with, science during the period in which modern western science was constituting itself. It is no exaggeration to say that he established this as a field of study, producing a steady stream of historical studies, initially of Italian Jews who read and wrote about nature and its study, but continually expanding his compass. 3 The field [End Page 719] Ruderman established and the studies he produced have been “repercussive” (to borrow his own adjective) in many directions—shedding light on Jewish-Christian relations, on early-modern Jewish intellectual history, on the deployments of Kabbalah and magic in early modern times, and so on. One of Ruderman’s achievements—perhaps not the most important in his view (for he considers himself a historian of Jewish thought and culture and not a historian of science) but of great importance nonetheless—has been to begin to lay the groundwork for a comparative history of Jewish and Christian attitudes towards and participation in the “new sciences.” Ruderman’s newest book is a big step towards Nelson’s desideratum, using Jewish attitudes as the comparative case. It is a collection of twelve linked essays (five of which have appeared elsewhere in one form or another) framed by a synthetic introduction and epilogue. The essays are individual or group portraits of Jews who evinced interest in natural philosophy or medicine, in a variety of settings and for a variety of reasons, between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. Ruderman describes his subject as “three distinct but interrelated groups among early modern Jews”: (1) “converso physicians and other university-trained intellectuals who fled Spain and Portugal in the seventeenth century and settled in Holland, Italy, Germany, England, and even eastern Europe, serving as doctors and purveyors of scientific learning throughout the Jewish communities of Europe, while yielding considerable political and economic power,” (2) “certain circles of Jewish scholars in central and eastern Europe [who] pursued scientific learning, especially astronomy, in more informal settings as a desirable supplement to rabbinic study,” and (3) “the hundreds of Jews who attended Italian medical schools, primarily the University of Padua, from the late sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries.” 4 In fact Ruderman covers even more ground than this. As background, he includes a brief essay on the attitudes of tenth- to fifteenth-century Jews towards nature and its study, surely the best survey of the sort available. Of the thirty or so early modern Jews that he describes in the remainder of the book, about twenty fit in at least one of the three camps upon which he focuses. 5 Nine [End Page 720] emerged from different circumstances (though these too were often highly influenced by one or more of the focus populations). This fact does nothing to impugn Ruderman’s typology—the groups he described were, in fact, of particular importance, and his identification of them as the principle populations contemplating and promulgating natural philosophy among Jews is in itself an advance of some moment. But the fact that a third of the cases Ruderman described do not fit into his own typology is testimony both to the complexity of his subject, and to his agility in addressing it. By anthologizing a dozen depictions of different thinkers in different milieus, Ruderman affords what might be called a “hawk...