Leading from the heart

De wortels van de Randstad. Overheidsinvloed en stedelijke hiërarchie in het westen van Nederland tussen de 13de en 20ste eeuw

Vormsi is a small island that belonged to the Oesel-Wiek bishopric during the Middle Ages. There is a church on the island that is dedicated to St Olaf, the Norwegian king who was undoubtedly the most popular saint among the Scandinavians. A short article written by Villem Raam in the anthology Eesti Arhitektuur (Estonian Architecture, 1996) is the only one worth mentioning that has appeared to date on the architectural history of the Vormsi church.The Vormsi church is comprised of a sanctuary and nave. Only the sanctuary was completed during the Middle Ages, and the stone nave was not completed until 1632. During the restoration of the church between 1989 and 1990, fragments were found of the foundation of the wooden church that predated the stone one. It is possible that the wooden church was utilised throughout the Middle Ages as a congregation room.Currently, it is believed that the Vormsi sanctuary was built during the 15th century. This dating is based on the pyramid-shaped vault consoles – a similar shape also appears in the chapel of the gate tower in the Padise Cistercian monastery. Actually, the Padise consoles have been reused. Their original location is unknown and their completion is impossible to date even within the time frame of a century.The most significant is the eastern wall of the Vormsi sanctuary, where a spacious niche with pointed arch is located. This Cistercian composition was also used in the Haapsalu Cathedral and apparently that was the model for the Vormsi church. The Haapsalu Cathedral is a surprisingly simple single-nave church with three bays. The church has richly decorated capitals on its wall pillars, on which both Romanesque and Early Gothic motifs have been used. At least some of the capitals have been hewn by a master who previously worked on the construction of the capital hall in the Riga Cathedral. The northern section of the Haapsalu Cathedral was apparently built in the 1260s. In the vicinity of Riga there is a church with a floor plan that is an exact counterpart to the one in Haapsalu – the Holme / Martinsala Church that dates back to about the 13th century. Considering both the floor plan and the sculptured decorations, it is believable that the designers and builders of the Haapsalu Cathedral came from the Riga environs.Pärnu is also on the Riga-Haapsalu route. Actually, two towns existed there during the Middle Ages. For a short time, Old-Pärnu on the right bank of the river had been the centre of the Oesel-Wiek bishopric before Haapsalu. However, the left bank of the river was controlled by the Livonian Order. There is very little information about the Old-Pärnu Cathedral that was completed around 1251 and destroyed by the Lithuanians in 1263. However, one thing is known – it also had a single-nave with three bays. There is no information about the design of the eastern wall of the cathedral. However, the sanctuary of St Nicholas’ Church in New-Pärnu had an eastern niche similar to the one in Haapsalu. It is not impossible that the motif was borrowed from the cathedral across the river or its ruins. Attention should also be paid to the fact that the design of the northern and southern walls in the sanctuary of Pärnu’s St Nicholas’ Church are similar to the Vormsi church. Therefore, there is no doubt that these two sanctuaries are architecturally and genetically related. Apparently the Vormsi sanctuary was built immediately or soon after the completion of the Haapsalu Cathedral – not later than 1270. It is not impossible that the vaults were constructed sometime later.The vault painting in the Vormsi sanctuary is probably inspired by the “paradise vaults” in Gotland. The Vormsi painting is strikingly primitive. In Estonia, this primitive style can also be seen in the churches in Ridala and Pöide.There is a squint (hagioscope) on the southern wall of the Vormsi church sanctuary, and an unusual sacrament niche with a light shaft in the eastern wall. This does not date back to the time when the sanctuary was built, but was added later. There have been at least eight such sacrament niches in Estonia, most of which were built in the 15th century.

Ringkøbing in the Middle Ages The last 25 years have seen frequent archaeological excavations in the medieval market town of Ringkøbing. In this paper, the author presents the results and weighs them against the written and cartographic sources in order to gain an overall picture of the emergence and development of the town during the Middle Ages (Fig. 1). Over the years, several local historians have dealt with the history of Ringkøbing. They based their investigations exclusively on the few medieval sources referring to the town, however, and the main issues they concentrated on were the reason for the town being situated exactly there, the origin of its name, its age, and whether it had grown out of an earlier settlement or had been a planned construction. In the first known reference to Ringkøbing, the town is called “rennumkøpingh,” or “the town at Rindum” (Fig. 2). Rindum, or “rennum,” was the rural parish, which had transferred some of its land to the town. A town prospect from around 1677 depicts the small town as seen from the north, with ships anchored on the fjord (Fig. 3). It gives a good impression of the number of streets and their directions. Nevertheless, the first reliable survey of the market town is from the early 19th century (Fig. 4).Ringkøbing is situated on the northern coast of Ringkøbing Fjord, on the edge of a moraine hill, well protected against floods. From the early days, Ringkøbing’s existence was inextricably linked with the navigation conditions on the fjord. Geologists have pointed out that during the Middle Ages the present islands in the tidal area south of Blåvandshuk continued further north, to Bovbjerg. This row of islands is visible on a chart from the mid-16th century (Fig. 5). On the chart, one of the islands is called “Numit,” which is interpreted as “Nyminde,” or “the new mouth.” Huge floods during the 17th century started a major process of drifting of material from the north along the coast, and the channels between the islands sanded up. Just one channel remained navigable, but it moved southward and eventually closed up completely (Fig. 6), which was a disastrous development for Ringkøbing. Nevertheless, during the Middle Ages, ships could still pass unhindered from the sea into the fjord and to Ringkøbing, where they could trade and take in supplies and water.Ringkøbing is situated in an area which has been inhabited since the last Ice Age, and which was especially rich during the Iron Age. By the mid-13th century the area was divided into districts and parishes, and the market town sprouted up in the middle of a well functioning agricultural region. The first actual excavation took place in Ringkøbing in 1978, when the property of Vester Strandgade 14 was investigated by Ringkøbing Museum. An area measuring 44 square metres was examined, and the excavation revealed part of the medieval town (Fig. 7). At the bottom of the excavated area, several furrows observed in a 15 to 20-cm thick humus layer indicated that the area had been farmed right up until the beginning of the activities there in the medieval period. Of the two ditches registered in the area, the earlier one had been dug into the ploughed field, whereas the later ditch was situated approximately in the middle of the medieval culture layer (Fig. 8). Twenty-three post-holes were found, but unfortunately their relationships to each other could not be determined. An extensive layer with a 3.4-metre diameter turned out to be the remains of a well, the shaft of which had been built from granite boulders (Fig. 9). A small bronze buckle was found at the bottom of the well (Fig. 10), and several sherds of imported pottery from around 1300 were found in the filling around the well shaft.The layer sequence was visible in the walls, with the yellow-brown moraine gravel at the bottom, then the above-mentioned humus layer with furrows, and then the homogeneous, grey, medieval culture layer. Above this an earthen floor from the 17th century was visible in several places. The upper layer, with a thickness of c.60 cm, was modern.The medieval layer contained large amounts of pottery sherds, mainly from locally produced grey-brown globular vessels. The rim sherds were from two main pottery types, A and B. Type A, which constitutes the largest group, has the classical, almost S-shaped rim (Fig. 12), whereas type B is characterized by an outward-folded edge creating a flat inner rim (Fig. 13). Both types exist concurrently throughout the medieval culture layer.The glazed pottery sherds represent two types, locally produced earthenware (Fig. 14), and imported pottery. Both types were present in the Vester Strandgade excavation. Of the imported sherds, 39 are from green-glazed jugs with a “raspberry” decoration (Fig. 15). These jugs were produced in the Netherlands around 1300. Sherds from German stoneware found in the medieval layer date from the same time (Fig. 16).The Vester Strandgade excavation was followed by several large and small investigations in the town centre (Fig. 17). “Dyekjærs Have” contained several traces of medieval structures, for instance a large number of post-holes, some of which were from a small building. The pottery material was abundant and consisted mainly of sherds from greyish-brown globular vessels (Fig. 18), but there were also sherds from imported and locally manufactured jugs. Other important town excavations include that of Marens Maw’, where the numerous traces of medieval structure included a row of post-holes interpreted as the outer wall of a house, and the excavation of Øster Strandgade 4, which revealed a late medieval turf-built well (Fig. 19). The excavation of Bojsens Gård also gave interesting results. It was very close to the street, and in this area the medieval culture layer had a depth of up to 60 cm. A ditch dug into the ploughed medieval field represented the earliest activity on this spot. Several structural traces reflected a continuous settlement going back to the early days of the town. Here, too, sherds from globular vessels dominated, but glazed ceramics and stoneware were also represented. The written sources from the Middle Ages reveal nothing about the medieval appearance of the town. The archaeological excavations, on the other hand, have shown that the settlement consisted of houses made from posts dug into the ground, probably half-timbered constructions with wattle-and-daub outer walls, earthen floors, and thatched roofs. The archaeological excavations have also revealed that Ringkøbing sprang up on a ploughed field during the second half of the 13th century. There are no signs of any settlement prior to this, and it is most likely that the town was laid out all at once according to a fixed town plan. No building traces were found in the streets, on Torvet (the market square), on Kirkepladsen (the church square), or on Havnepladsen (the harbour square), and so these squares must have been planned as such from the beginning. The numerous grooves and ditches are interpreted as boundary markers made when the plots were first established. The earliest ones are dug into the ploughed field, and so they must indicate the very first land-registration of the town.In order to found the new market town, an oblong part of Rindum parish had to be confiscated, and the town was marked out in the western part of this as an area measuring approximately 550 by 250 metres (Fig. 20). The streets were laid out in the still existing regular network. There was no harbour, and the ships would anchor in the shallow water off the town. Goods were transported by barge or horse-drawn carriage.In the town centre the market square was laid out, and behind it the square by the church. Ringkøbing’s church is a small Gothic brick building from around 1400. The townsmen probably used the parish church in Rindum during the first 150 years.At the time when Ringkøbing was founded, the Crown was establishing several small coastal towns throughout the kingdom. There was a notable lack of towns along the west coast of Jutland, and the founding of Ringkøbing probably represents a wish to fill this vacuum. At the same time, it was a friendly gesture directed towards the merchants from Northwest Europe whose large merchant ships sailed along the west coast on their way to and from the major markets in the Baltic. It was in the king’s interest to control the trade in the country, as it enabled him to levy taxes and to oppose the Hanseatic League’s attempt to monopolise foreign trade.Life in medieval Ringkøbing was based on trade and crafts, and the king controlled both through his assignment of privileges. The first preserved trade licence concerning medieval Ringkøbing is from 1443, but that document is in fact a confirmation of a privilege previously granted.The archaeological excavations and the written sources have informed us that the town’s trade interests lay across the North Sea. The town’s own merchants travelled overseas, and foreign merchants passed through. Foreign goods such as glazed jugs, stoneware jugs, and woollen cloth were imported from the Netherlands, Flanders, and Germany. The sources also indicate that a hinterland reaching far into Jutland used Ringkøbing for disembarkation. After the Middle Ages, the sources describe Ringkøbing as a small town, at times rather poor, which often had to ask permission to postpone the tax payments for which it was liable. The earliest depictions and maps also give the impression of a small town taking up less space than it did during the Middle Ages (Fig. 21).It will be interesting to learn whether future excavations in Ringkøbing will radically change the picture of the town presented here.Helle HenningsenRingkøbing Museum Translated by Annette Lerche Trolle

Part 1 Introduction: awareness of time - time and civil life, our sense of time, time and mankind describing time - time, language and number, time and natural bases of measurement, time in contemporary society. Part 2 Time in antiquity and the Middle Ages: time at the dawn of history - prehistory, ancient Egypt, Sumeria and Babylon, ancient Iran time in classical antiquity - classical Greece and Hellenistic civilization, ancient Israel, Imperial Rome and early Christendom time in the Middle Ages - medieval Europe, the Islamic world, the periodization of time and millenarianism, the measurement of time time in the Far East and Mesoamerica - India, China, the Maya. Part 3 Time in the modern world: the advent of the mechanical clock - the invention of the verge escapement, the social influence of the mechanical clock time and history in the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution - reform of the calendar, the pendulum clock and the clocklike universe, attitudes to time and history in the 16th and 17th centuries time and history in the 18th century - the invention of the marine chronometer, the discovery of historical perspective evolution and the Industrial Revolution - the evolutionary universe, the role of time in modern industrial society rival concepts of time - instant and duration, relativistic and cosmic time civilization as progress? - time and belief in progress, time, history and the computerized society. Appendices: 1 - leap years 2 - the metonic calendrical cycle 3 - the calculation of Easter. References. Index.

In the announced article, the author continues to examine the history of education and enlightenment in Europe from the times of ancient Greece and Rome to the present day. With this publication, the author tries to draw attention to such a topic as the Intellectual Renaissance and the emergence of Universities in Europe during the "High" Middle Ages (12th–13th centuries). The article attempts to address the following questions: 1) to highlight the features of the Intellectual Renaissance of the 12th century; 2) to reveal the importance of Paris in inheriting the ancient heritage for Europe; 3) to show the place and role of Chartres and the Chartres spirit of scholarship in European intellectual life; 4) to present the role of the monastery in Sito and the Cistercians in the intellectual "fermentation" of the time; 5) to highlight the teaching activities and scientific views of Pierre Abelard, the first European intellectual-professor without a university degree; 6) to reveal the scholastic method of knowing God, the world, and man; 7) tell about the emergence of the artisan-intellectual and his workshop (workshop); 8) describe the founding of the first university corporations in Europe in the 12th – 13th centuries – Bologna, Paris, Oxford and other cities; 9) tell about the higher school of philosophy and law in Constantinople (Pandidakterion); 10) describe the state of education and enlightenment in Russia in the 12th–13th centuries. The university, which emerged in the 12th – 13th centuries as a guild corporation of masters and their students – “universitas magistrorum et scholarum” with its own law and academic freedom, had the right to unhindered movement of professors and students across European countries without borders (“peregrinatio academica”), enjoyed the unhindered right to strike for violation of its corporate rights and freedoms, including the right to freely move to another place of teaching and learning (secesio), had the right “ubique docendi”, according to which a university graduate, awarded the academic title of doctor, could lecture not only at his own, but also at any other university he wished to move to, while the professor lived off the students’ tuition fees and fees for diplomas of academic degrees. Starting from the 12th century, educated people, especially in cities, became a visible sign of medieval Western Europe. The decisive credit for this belonged to the Intellectual Revival and the Universities.

The article addresses the need to reassess the nature and dynamics of interactions between Arabic and European poetry in the Middle Ages, as previously asserted by proponents of the “Arabic hypothesis” — the theory of Andalusian poetry’s influence on the troubadour lyric of Provence. Formulated in the 18th century and embraced by Romantics in the 19th century, this hypothesis faced significant criticism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was ultimately dismissed by most scholars. However, discoveries in Andalusian strophic poetry (zajal, muwashshah) and the identification of Romanic kharjas have provided new perspectives on the mechanisms of literary contact. Methodologically, the study builds upon Julián Ribera’s concept, which views Andalusian strophic poetry as part of a hybrid “Arab-Romanic” system that emerged in the bilingual environment of the Iberian Peninsula. The author examines the principles governing Andalusian strophic forms and their interaction with Western European traditions. The study of newly uncovered materials, alongside an analysis of medieval Arabic poetological treatises, reveals that cultural exchange between East and West was more complex than previously assumed: interactions occurred not through direct borrowing but via a multi-layered process of adaptation.

An analysis of the material presented in the article (geographical names, hydronyms, oronyms as well as anthroponyms) makes it possible to draw geolinguistic, onomastic and historical-linguistic conclusions concerning the Polish-Bohemian language borderland (between Silesia, Moravia and Bohemia) in the Middle Ages and to establish the areas in which the two languages could influence each other. In the 12th century, Silesia was strongly linked linguistically to the other provinces of former Poland. In the 13th century, direct contact between the Polish and Czech languages occurred in an area from Ostravice to Prudnik. In the 13th and 14th centuries contacts between the two languages in the area overlapped with German–Polish and German–Bohemian contacts. This resulted in changes of names, mixed names, spread of new naming models. Part of the language area of the Polish-Bohemian borderland became a German-speaking area. This determined the local nature of the Polish-Czech or Polish-Bohemian linguistic neighbourhood.

Chapter 7 Neurological conditions in the European Middle Ages

The aim of this paper is to question the supposed isolated and backward position of the region of Westerwolde, in the north-eastern part of the Netherlands. Westerwolde’s geographically rather isolated position has traditionally been brought forward to explain its backward image. Progressive peat growth ever since the Bronze Age occupation had transformed Westerwolde into an island. It was abandoned in the Late Iron Age, only to be recolonized in the early Middle Ages. During the 19th century, romantics were still admiring Westerwolde’s arcadian scenery and cultural traditions. In contrast, from the mid-19th century until well into the 20th century, protagonists of modern agriculture criticized its backward farming methods and standard of living, as well as its poor infrastructure. The central issues we address here is whether critics were justified in describing it as backward in the 19th century and whether concrete indications for this assumed backwardness are to be found in previous centuries. To jump from early medieval times to the 19th century is too big a leap, but combining archaeological and ecological data with a renewed and more critical study of written sources against the background of huge landscape transformations has brought a nuanced understanding of how Westerwolde evolved. We present new insights for the period starting with the conquest of Frisia and Saxony by the Carolingians and the introduction of Christianity, when missionaries and newly founded monasteries acquired agricultural assets and rights in the conquered region, up to the late Middle Ages. We therefore analyze church foundations, livelihoods or economic conditions of existence in connection with occupation structures, infrastructure and exchange of consumer goods interdisciplinarily. Conservatism appears easily confused with backwardness, and an aversion to innovation, with indifference, as underlying external factors often forced the inhabitants to adopt a wait-and-see attitude. Westerwolde is viewed continuously in connection with the adjacent regions of Drenthe and Lower Saxon Emsland.

The first volume of Rewriting the Middle Ages in the Twentieth Century, published in 2005 by Brepols, gathered twenty profiles of key medievalists of the 20th century, and was preceded by an introduction on the evolution and current situation of medieval studies written by Jaume Aurell. Because of the excellent international reception of that volume, we continue this historiographical task by collecting in future volumes profiles of other 20th century medievalists. The second volume of the collection, centred on “National Traditions”, is focused on eighteen medievalists who have been significant in diverse countries in the development of both medievalism and national identity. Medievalism has been closely united to national traditions since its beginning, and this book contributes to our understanding of this phenomenon. Romantic intellectuals’ attraction to the medieval period largely explains the influence of medievalism in the formation of contemporary national identities, as from the 19th century, medievalists have also functioned as intellectuals present in the public debate. In the 20th century, important scholars of the Middle Ages, some of whom are studied in this volume, had already become authentic “national chroniclers”, consolidators of the identities of the countries to which they felt closely linked both intellectually and emotionally. They actively participated in debates that exceeded strictly academic limits, delving into a wide range of political and cultural issues. The range of the cultural and geographical origins of the medievalists profiled in this volume — from England, Spain, France, Germany, Russia, Portugal, Romania, Poland, Argentina, Bulgaria, United States, Belgium, Holland, and Turkey — best illustrates the global influence of medievalism in the construction, invention, and consolidation of national traditions. This focus, which perhaps (and apparently) contravenes the actual strength of the process of globalisation, is especially fascinating in the field of medievalism, because most of the modern nations — specially those in Europe and Asia — have found their justification, inspiration, and legendary and historical foundations in the Middle Ages. By reading the lives of these medievalists, we can better understand the development of intellectual history and our notions of developing cultural traditions.

During the Middle Ages in the Romanian Countries, along with religious and historical manuscripts, also circulated and manuscripts of popular books. In general, this kind of literature occupies a special place in the history of Southeast European books, and a special place in the history of Romanian books. They entered the 16th century on the Greek and Slavonic lines, spreading intensively during the 17th and 18th centuries in multiple manuscript copies. Manuscripts of popular books are preserved in the collections of Romanian libraries, some of them have been put into the scientific circuit, especially texts from the 16th-17th centuries, while those from the 18th century have been less utilized. A work in which the popular traditions about animals and birds are collected, which had a prolonged influence on Romanian cultured literature, is the The Physiologist, a work that served as a Christian moral treatise and zoology manual in the Middle Ages. Fragments of that work were attested by researchers in the The Teachings of Neagoe Basarab to His Son Theodosius (1521) and in the Dimitrie Cantemir’s Hieroglyphical History.

With this publication, the authors try to draw attention to the sources of European education and enlightenment in the early Middle Ages (before the emergence of universities). The article reveals such issues as: 1) the establishment of the “seven liberal arts” (septem artes liberales) in Europe, divided into three estates: clerics (oratores), warriors (bellatores), and workers (laboratores); 2) childhood and child rearing; 3) the code of virtues of a “good Christian” versus his seven sins; 4) the Carolingian Renaissance and the contribution of Flaccus Alcuin and Rabanus Maurus to the development of education; 5) why history/historiography did not become an independent artes liberales; 6) the role of monastic and cathedral (episcopal) schools; 7) the Bible, its reading and commentary in schools; 8) the emergence and essence of scholasticism; 9) education in the Byzantine Empire: Magnaur Higher School and Pandidakterion University - the first higher educational institution in the world; 10) education and enlightenment in Rus. The darkest ages of the "dark" Middle Ages prepared the ground for the restructuring of the entire system of value orientations and collective ideas, called, in the figurative expression of the famous French medievalist Jacques Le Goff, "a return from heaven to earth". School, education, and literacy played a key role in this reorientation. The basis of early medieval education was the Roman "seven liberal arts", which, although not always and not everywhere, were observed in all schools at monasteries, diocesan cathedrals, and royal courts. Scholasticism (early 11th – 12th centuries) sharpened the relationship between faith and reason in the knowledge of God, the world, and man. The authors conclude that it is appropriate to inform the modern generation of AI about the origins of European education and enlightenment in the early Middle Ages (before the advent of universities) as a successful example of intellectuals of the "dark ages" for the "reformers" of permanent "reforms" in the field of education of the current "enlightened age."

The paper reviews modern and contemporary images of the Middle Ages with emphasis on popular culture in the form of selected cases from literature, cinematography and video games in the context of the notion of historical anachronism. Erroneous statements that antedate or misplace events, objects or people basically constitute an “innocent” anachronistic transgression, which can be easily rectified using verifiable data. However, faulty projection of a set of features or characteristics to an age which did not know them represents a far more dangerous fallacy because it opens the question of interpretation – and interpretations vary. To understand past realities it is necessary to uncover how past people understood their own reality and why did they what they did. Projecting contemporary meanings onto the past, in this case the Middle Ages, is a genuinely perilous anachronism which is very difficult or even impossible to rectify. One example of such a historical “mistreatment” is the notion of the “Dark Ages”. Therefore, the paper traces the idea of the “Dark Ages” from the 14th century onward and considers the context in which it became quite widespread from the 18th and 19th centuries to the present day. However, the existence of a counter-myth in the form of the romantic idealization of the Middle Ages as a time of lost pre-modern innocence is also emphasized. The process of industrialization and modernization of (primarily English and Western) European societies in the 18th and 19th centuries and the enthronement of science and progress as leading social principles brought about an (only seemingly) unexpected consequence. Social change provoked nostalgia for an idealized and more simple pre-modern past which gave rise to the Gothic genre that introduced the (at that time socially subversive) element of “horror”. However, at the same time it engendered a romantic and nostalgic depiction of “olden times” which attracted a serious (mostly female) literary public. Even more important is the fact that the elements of the Gothic genre still exist in popular culture to this day through transmission into other popular culture venues, such as literature, cinematic and television content or video games. The extreme dual understanding of the Middle Ages between, metaphorically speaking, fairy tales and horror initially seems confusing, but in reality these images represent two opposite sides of the same coin. Finally, the paper seeks to answer the question of why the Middle Ages are imagined in the ways they are imagined, while notions about the Middle Ages are understood as an integral part of modern (secular) mythical discourse that legitimizes (post)modernity through the construction of extreme medieval otherness. Like it or not, the real or imagined medieval past is a recurrent and in some aspects even dominant feature of the (post)modern popular imagination. It would appear that it will remain so in the future, especially in the dynamic and newly developing post-COVID-19 world order.

Rethinking the Ph.D. dissertation in botany: Widening the circle.

For forty years Damasus Trapp has been the foremost scholar of late medieval Augustinianism. His work has made a major contribution to our understanding of Augustine's influence on intellectual life of Europe from the 14th to the 16th century. In the present volume the heritage of Augustine in the later Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation is illustrated by contributions from leading scholars in the field, which range from academic disputation at Oxford in the early 14th century, to the world of John Calvin in the 16th century. It is the diversity of the Augustinian tradition that is documented here. The authors of the articles collected in this volume have investigated anew such well known sources as Gregory of Rimini's Sentences Commentary and Johannes von Staupitz's sermons. In addition, they have brought to light previously unknown works such as Antonius Rampegolus' Figurae Bibliorum and an anonymous Sermo de Antichristo. In this collection the richness of the Augustinian tradition in the later Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation appears, a broad via Augustini, which Damasus Trapp has done so much to illuminate. This Festschrift is a testimony to the continuous influence and inspiration of his contribution.