Learning as an Important Privilege: A Life Span Perspective with Implications for Successful Aging

Dancer perceptions of the cognitive, social, emotional, and physical benefits of modern styles of partnered dancing

Two of the most actively studied modifiable lifestyle factors, exercise and video gaming, are regularly touted as easy and effective ways to enhance brain function and/or protect it from age-related decline. However, some critical lingering questions and methodological inconsistencies leave it unclear what aspects of brain health are affected by exercise and video gaming. In this cross-sectional global online study, we recruited over 1000 people and collected data about participants' physical activity levels, time spent playing video games, mental health, and cognitive performance using tests of short-term memory, verbal abilities, and reasoning skills from the Creyos battery. The amount of regular physical activity was not significantly related to any measure of cognitive performance; however, more physical activity was associated with better mental health as indexed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-2) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-2) screeners for depression and anxiety. Conversely, we found that more time spent playing video games was associated with better cognitive performance but was unrelated to mental health. We conclude that exercise and video gaming have differential effects on the brain, which may help individuals tailor their lifestyle choices to promote mental and cognitive health, respectively, across the lifespan.

This study investigates the effects of a semester-long swimming intervention on the cognitive and mental well-being of pre-service physical education teachers. Recognising the growing concern over mental health issues, particularly among young adults, this research examines whether structured swimming lessons contribute to improved mental well-being and cognitive performance. A single-group experimental design was implemented, involving 30 undergraduate students enrolled in a 14-week swimming course. Participants' mental health was assessed using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), while cognitive performance was measured through the Stroop Color-Word Test, administered before and after the intervention. The findings indicated an overall improvement in participants' understanding of the relationship between swimming and mental health, particularly in areas such as concentration, sleep quality, and group belonging. However, statistical analysis using the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test revealed no significant differences in mental well-being or cognitive performance post-intervention. While basic cognitive processing showed slight improvements, more complex cognitive tasks exhibited mixed results, possibly due to cognitive fatigue or a speed-accuracy trade-off. Despite the lack of statistically significant changes, regular swimming may offer psychological and cognitive benefits through structured physical activity and social engagement. The findings emphasise the potential of swimming as a complementary approach to mental health promotion, highlighting the need for further research with larger sample sizes and controlled study designs to establish its long-term effects.

Subsidized senior housing (SSH) is widely valued for its affordability and housing stability, yet its potential social benefits, particularly for cognitive health, remain underexplored. Although congregate or shared housing environments are often theorized or presumed to foster social engagement and well-being, empirical evidence remains limited, especially from longitudinal, quasi-experimental studies in the context of subsidized senior housing. This study examines whether social engagement mediates the association between SSH residency and cognitive function, and whether this indirect pathway varies by neighborhood cohesion. We analyzed five waves (2015-2019) of the National Health and Aging Trends Study (NHATS) using a quasi-experimental design with propensity score weighting to compare low-income older adults residing in SSH with demographically comparable peers in traditional unsubsidized housing. Weighted random-effects panel regression models with wave fixed effects and individual-clustered standard errors were used to estimate a moderated mediation model. Older adults residing in SSH reported higher levels of social engagement than matched controls. Higher engagement was positively associated with cognitive function. The indirect association between SSH residency and cognitive function via social engagement was observed in high-cohesion neighborhoods but not in low-cohesion contexts. No direct association between SSH residency and cognitive function was found. These findings provide a rigorous longitudinal test of a commonly assumed but rarely examined pathway linking subsidized senior housing to cognitive outcomes. Results suggest that SSH may function as a socially embedded residential context associated with cognitive health through engagement, particularly where neighborhood cohesion is strong.

Mexican descent Latinos have significantly higher rates of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRD) compared to the general population. Latinos also report higher rates of depressive symptoms in older adulthood relative to non-Latino Whites. Depression in older age is associated with poor cognitive health; however, the mechanisms that underlie this relationship are not well-understood. The current study examined social engagement, which has been linked with better cognitive health, as a mediator of the association between depressive symptoms and cognitive function among older Mexican descent Latinos. Method: A convenience sample of Mexican descent Latinos (N=159), aged 55 to 88 years (M=68.2, SD=7.05) and without diagnosed cognitive problems, were recruited from a community in South Texas. They were administered in-person interviews, in their choice of English or Spanish in Summer 2023 that included demographic questions and measures of cognitive function, depressive symptoms, and social engagement. Results Pearson correlations found that depressive symptoms were significantly negatively associated with social engagement (r = -.25, p <.002) and cognitive function (r = -.39, p <.001). Hierarchical Bayesian simulations indicated strong indirect effects of depressive symptoms on cognitive function through social engagement (unstandardized 95% CI = -.2408, -.0119, p<.0001). Conclusion The current findings suggest that cognitive decline in individuals with depressive symptoms may occur because of reduced participation in social activities. Community-based approaches, with a focus on increasing social engagement in individuals who exhibit symptoms of depression, may be viable interventions that could be leveraged to reduce the burden of ADRD in Latinos.

BackgroundInferences about cognitive reserve and related constructs may be subject to reverse causation, but too often the possibility of reverse causation is not addressed in research on reserve and resilience. A lifespan perspective can shed light on the relationships among education, IQ, and related constructs and what can be concluded about causality with respect to late‐life cognitive and dementia outcomes.MethodWe use general cognitive ability (GCA) to refer to IQ or IQ‐like measures. We provide examples from the literature plus some new findings examining the effect of cognitive reserve on late‐life outcomes and how modifiable factors may impact reserve and resilience effects. Some of the data presented are from genetically‐informative studies that help to clarify issues related to causality.ResultThere is a bidirectional relationship between education and GCA, but the directional influences change across the lifespan. The relationship is not unidirectional in childhood and adolescence, but during that period more education does increase GCA. The effect reaches an asymptote, and in late adolescence and early adulthood, the causal direction shifts toward GCA driving educational attainment. When both education and GCA are in the same model, both longitudinal phenotypic and Mendelian randomization studies show that GCA is a stronger driver of late‐life cognitive and dementia outcomes than education. Appropriately designed studies often support the idea that occupational complexity and engagement in enriching activities are not directly causal, but are downstream effects of GCA. Finally, earlier lifestyle factors can moderate associations between cognitive reserve and late‐life outcomes. For example, favorable early midlife social/health behaviors can offset advanced brain aging in individuals with lower cognitive reserve (i.e., lower young adult GCA).ConclusionThe results have implications regarding interventions to improve cognitive reserve and resilience, and what the balance should be when it comes to resources for early‐ versus late‐life interventions. The primary direction of causal effects raises questions about how and, importantly, when during the lifespan, increased education, cognitive enrichment/training programs (which may be thought of as a type of education), or other lifestyle factors are likely to increase reserve or resilience, thereby improving cognitive function and reducing dementia risk.

Number of Living Siblings, Social Engagement, and Cognitive Decline Among Older Mexican Adults

Life course social mobility and cognitive function among middle-aged and older adults in India: Exploring heterogeneity by gender.

Background and Study Aim. Exposure to natural environments is an important factor in physical and mental well-being. However, the specific effects of outdoor walking on cognitive and physiological health still require the search for effective solutions. This study aims to examine the effects of walking exercises in natural environments on the physiological and cognitive health of university students. Materials and Methods. Thirty-two university students leading a sedentary lifestyle participated in the study. The experimental group (age = 21.25 ± 1.61) walked in nature twice a week for eight weeks, covering distances ranging from 6 to 10 km. The control group (age = 22.00 ± 1.54) maintained their sedentary lifestyle during this period. Reaction time, accuracy rate, memory capacity, cognitive performance, resting heart rate (RHR), and oxygen saturation level (SpO₂) were measured before and after the study. These measurements were recorded using OpenSesame software and analyzed using the visual memory paradigm. Data were processed using SPSS 26.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY), with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Results. Although reaction time increased by 5.15% in the experimental group, no significant difference was found. Accuracy rate (8.42%), memory capacity (7.52%), cognitive performance (9.60%), oxygen saturation (1.03%), and RHR (4.26%) improved significantly. Pre-test and post-test comparisons revealed significant differences (p < 0.001) in these variables. In the control group, a statistically significant difference was observed only in RHR, while no significant changes were found in other variables. Intergroup comparisons showed no significant difference in reaction time; however, accuracy rate, memory capacity, cognitive performance, oxygen saturation, and RHR demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.001). Conclusions. Regular walking in natural environments positively affects cognitive and physiological health. It also improves RHR and oxygen saturation while enhancing cognitive performance.

Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced?

This study aimed to (a) investigate the associations between indices of stress severity across the lifespan (early, middle, late life) and cognitive function among community-dwelling older adults, and (b) examine whether a healthy lifestyle composite score comprised of physical activity, healthy diet adherence, social engagement, sleep quality, and mindful relaxation moderates the associations between lifespan stress severity and cognitive function. Participants (n=226, Mage=68.2±6.5, 68.1% female) completed questionnaires to measure stress and lifestyle behaviours, and three online neurocognitive tasks. No direct associations between stress severity and cognition were found. The healthy lifestyle composite score moderated the associations between early, midlife, and late-life stress severity and inhibitory control. Exploratory analyses suggest that this moderating effect may be sex-dependent. Despite study limitations and the need for additional research, findings provide preliminary support for the role of lifestyle behaviours in enhancing older adults' resilience to the effects of stress on cognitive health in a sex-specific manner.

The global rise in the elderly population inherently escalates the demand for health and social care. Ensuring cognitive performance for healthy brain aging presents significant challenges for researchers and health professionals promoting self-care behaviors. This article aims to provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of the latest research on healthy brain aging by employing a biopsychosocial framework. It integrates biological, psychological, and social dimensions to elucidate their collective influence on cognitive health in older adults. Methodologically, this article provides a narrative review of the existing literature. A diverse array of bibliographic resources was obtained from prominent electronic databases, including MEDLINE, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science, to ensure broad coverage of the topic. The search was designed to capture relevant studies published between 2010 and 2025, using key terms such as ‘aging’, ‘biomarker’, ‘neurodegeneration’, and ‘cognitive performance’. Following a rigorous selection process, two field specialists evaluated a total of 106 full-text articles to identify those that met the eligibility criteria, ultimately yielding 70 relevant studies. The findings reveal important connections between psychosocial and biological biomarkers and brain morphology, highlighting lifestyle factors—such as diet, exercise, and social engagement—as crucial for cognitive health. The article also underscores specific biomarkers relevant for assessing brain age and their relationship to neurodegenerative disorders. Notably, while biological markers like Aβ, tau, and α-synuclein (proteins that define the core molecular pathology of common neurodegenerative diseases) are present, they do not guarantee the onset of neurodegenerative diseases; psychosocial factors play an essential role in determining disease manifestation. In conclusion, these results support a holistic approach to healthy aging, which integrates psychosocial environments and lifestyle choices that enhance cognitive resilience. We propose further cross-sectional descriptive studies to better identify the biopsychosocial variables influencing cognitive performance and healthy brain aging, aiming to improve clinical practices and inform public health strategies.

Although a number of studies have documented cognitive health among older immigrants in the United States, little is known about how the life-course immigration experiences are associated with cognitive trajectories among older Chinese immigrants. We assess patterns of cognitive functioning and change over time and examine whether age at migration, reasons for migration, acculturation, perceived discrimination, and preferred dialects are related to cognitive trajectories. The sample comprised 2,075 participants from the Population Study of Chinese Elderly (PINE), who completed a battery of cognitive tests at four time points (2011-2019). Latent class growth analysis and multinomial logistic regression were utilized. Three latent classes of cognitive trajectories were identified: the low functioning with the fastest decline (LCF, 12%), the moderate functioning with a medium decline rate (MCF, 39%), and the high functioning with the slowest decline (HCF, 48%). Perceiving more discrimination reduced, whereas speaking Taishanese increased the odds of being in the LCF and MCF. High acculturation only distinguished MCF from HCF after controlling for the known factors of cognitive health such as age, education, and social engagement. This study identifies a group of older Chinese immigrants who are especially vulnerable to cognitive impairment and indicates that the risk of cognitive decline appears to be elevated with lower levels of acculturation and unidentified racial discrimination. More research is needed to fully understand the underlying mechanisms that link the life-course immigration experiences to cognitive health outcomes in later life.

(NOTE: All chapters conclude with Looking Back, Key Terms and Concepts, and Epilogue.) I. BEGINNINGS. 1. An Introduction to Life Span Development. An Orientation to Life Span Development. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature-and Nurture-of Life Span Development. Theoretical Perspectives. Research Methods. 2. The Start of Life: Prenatal Development. Heredity. The Interaction of Heredity and Environment. Prenatal Growth and Change. 3. Birth and the Newborn Infant. Birth. Birth Complications. The Competent Newborn. II. INFANCY FORMING THE FOUNDATIONS OF LIFE. 4. Physical Development in Infancy. Growth and Stability. Motor Development. The Development of the Senses. 5. Cognitive Development in Infancy. Piaget's Approach to Cognitive Development. Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development. The Roots of Language. 6. Social and Personality Development in Infancy. Forming the Roots of Sociability. Forging Relationships. Differences Among Infants. III. THE PRESCHOOL YEARS. 7. Physical and Cognitive Development in the Preschool Years. Physical Growth. Intellectual Development. The Growth of Language and Learning. 8. Social and Personality Development in the Preschool Years. Forming a Sense of Self. Friends and Family: Preschooler's Social Lives. Moral Development and Aggression. IV. THE MIDDLE CHILDHOOD YEARS. 9. Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood. Physical Development. Intellectual Development. Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood. 10. Social and Personality Development in Middle Childhood. The Developing Self. Relationships: Building Friendship in Middle Childhood. Family Life. V. ADOLESCENCE. 11. Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence. Physical Maturation. Cognitive Development and Schooling. Threats to Adolescents' Well-Being. 12. Social and Personality Development in Adolescence. Identity: Asking Who Am I? Relationships: Family and Friends. Dating, Sexual Behavior, and Teenage Pregnancy. VI. EARLY ADULTHOOD. 13. Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood. Physical Development and Stress. Cognitive Development. College: Pursuing Higher Education. 14. Social and Personality Development in Early Adulthood. Forging Relationships: Intimacy, Liking, and Loving During Early Adulthood. The Course of Relationships. Work: Choosing and Embarking on a Career. VII. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD. 15. Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood. Physical Development. Health. Cognitive Development. 16. Social and Personality Development in Middle Adulthood. Personality Development. Relationships: Family in Middle Age. Work and Leisure. VIII. LATE ADULTHOOD. 17. Physical and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood. Physical Development in Late Adulthood. Health and Wellness in Late Adulthood. Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood. 18. Social and Personality Development in Late Adulthood. Personality Development and Successful Aging. The Daily Life of Late Adulthood. Relationships: Old and New. IX. ENDINGS. 19. Death and Dying. Dying and Death Across the Life Span. Confronting Death. Grief and Bereavement.

Active sport tourists are part of an increasingly specialised sector of the tourism industry. However, at present we know little about these people whose primary purpose for taking vacations is to engage in their favourite sport activities. The purpose of this study, therefore, ivas (i) to identify and explain the patterns of participation in sport tourism over the life course for men and women; (ii) to identify the characteristics of sport tourists during early adulthood (17—39 years), middle adulthood (40-59 years) and late adulthood (60-91 years), and (iii) to propose strategies for marketing sport tourism at different stages in the life course. A purposive sample of 1,277 New England residents completed a fixed choice questionnaire measuring tourist role preference (activities and behaviour while on vacation), socio-psychological needs and demographics. Of these 1,277 individuals, 621 are sport tourists (279 males and 342 females) ranging in age from 18 to 91 years, with a mean age of 41.92 years (SD 16.8). The results indicate that while active sport tourism is most popular among individuals in early adulthood, a sizable number of both men and women choose sport-oriented vacations in middle and late adulthood as well. Throughout the life course, active sport tourists tend to be healthy, prioritise the play element in their lives, and are relatively affluent and well educated. Changes which occur over the life course relate to choice of companion(s) while on vacation. I n early and late adulthood, many sport tourists report travelling with groups of friends while those in middle adulthood tend to travel with their families. The results are interpreted within a Levinsonian framework, and, implications for segmenting the active sport tourist market using a life-span approach are discussed.