Legislation, Standardization and Technological Solutions for Enhancing e-Accessibility in e-Health

On May 2001, the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) was presented by the World Health Organisation (WHO). The ICF has been developed from the International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps (ICIDH), which was first published in 1980. Twenty years later, after systematic field trials and international consultation, ICF was endorsed by the 54th World Health Assembly for international use [1]. ICF provides a unified and standard language and serves as a framework for the description of health and health-related states (i.e., disability). It is a complement to the ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases), where health conditions (diseases, disorders, injuries, etc.) are classified. ICF defines components of health and health-related components of well-being. It is described from the perspective of the body, the individual and society in different components: Body Functions and Structures; Activity and Participation; Environmental Factors and Personal Factors (Fig. 1). ICF systematically groups different domains for a person in a given health condition. Functioning is an umbrella term encompassing positive aspects of Body Functions and Structures, Activity and Participation; similarly, disability serves as an umbrella term for negative aspects, i.e., Impairments, Activity limitations and Participation restrictions (Table 1). ICF also lists environmental factors that interact with all these constructs. In this way, ICF enables the user to record useful pro-

The effective protection of human rights is extremely important in countries in transition faced with the challenge of overcoming an authoritarian past rife with severe violations of basic human rights and freedoms. In post-war societies, where large-scale violations of human rights have resulted from armed conflicts, the effective protection of human rights is even more crucial. Therefore, it is not surprising that one of the primary goals of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (the Dayton Peace Agreement) was to establish an adequate legal and institutional framework for the enforcement and protection of human rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina provides for a special status to the European Convention on Human Rights and its protocols, which, pursuant to Article II.1 of the Constitution, shall have priority over all other laws. The Constitution also stipulates that the enjoyment of rights and freedoms provided for in the 15 human rights instruments listed in Annex 1 to the Constitution shall be guaranteed to all persons in Bosnia and Herzegovina without discrimination on any grounds. While the Constitution envisages the existence of several institutions responsible for guaranteeing respect for human rights, the possibility of BiH citizens to directly address the European Court of Human Rights as well as other bodies responsible for monitoring the implementation of appropriate human rights instruments, whose practice will be discussed within this paper, is of great importance. Although this type of protection is highly important, it is necessary to strive for the improvement of the national (BiH and entity) human rights protection system, through the continuous improvement of the legal framework and the functioning of institutions entrusted with the protection and enforcement of human rights. The paper also analyses the effects of the ratification of international instruments on human rights protection.

The introduction of digital technologies into the sphere of human rights and freedoms is ambiguous, leading to a blurring of established ideas about constitutional human rights and freedoms. In general, all groups of constitutional human rights and freedoms have been digitalized. The use of digital technologies and artificial intelligence has contributed to the creation of new forms of implementation of constitutional rights and freedoms. However, digitalization has also created new threats that can only be neutralized by creating new legal mechanisms. Practice has shown that law as a universal social regulator is applicable to regulating public relations in the digital environment. Spontaneous instruments of self-regulation are not based on basic constitutional principles, including the recognition of human rights and freedoms as the highest value, therefore, they cannot serve as the main source of regulation. In the context of rapidly developing technologies and changing public relations, the importance of constitutional principles, as well as human rights and freedoms, as a basic value, the foundation for building new legal relations in the digital environment and creating new digital rights is increasing. In particular, given the extent of the penetration of digital technologies into the implementation of constitutional human rights and freedoms, it is necessary first of all to legislate the guarantee of human access to the Internet as a condition for the implementation of constitutional rights and freedoms in the digital environment, as well as to supplement the provisions prohibiting discrimination of human rights and freedoms depending on the form of rights and freedoms implementation.

Cancer and palliative care in Africa.

Background: Every millennium, decade, and century, as well as every passing day, humanity wakes up with a dream of a ‘new world’, a world without wars and bloodshed. Despite this thousand-year-old dream, wars and their devastating consequences hang menacingly over humanity’s head like the sword of Damocles. For this reason, wars have been and will remain a key focus of researchers and philosophers. By studying the numerous causes and consequences of war, the necessary measures to guarantee security and peace worldwide can be determined. Although human society strides towards prosperity, the likelihood of war has not diminished but continues to threaten, with unparalleled ferocity, the existence of human life, peace, and security. The numerous agreements and treaties, both bilateral and multilateral, between different states have only temporarily avoided the outbreak of conflicts and wars. Therefore, the concepts of peace, defence, and the prevention of war remain at the centre of research today. Research works in these fields are geared towards a universal idea: ‘the protection of basic human rights’. Methodology: This paper’s research methodology involves analysing data on the role of the UN as a defender of freedom and human rights. To achieve this, an extensive literature review was conducted. The review covers literature sources in both Albanian and foreign languages, written by well-known authors and provides a large amount of information and thoughts on the topic under consideration. The authors of some of the used works include Thomas Hobbes, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, John Locke, Brian Tamanaha, Alexis Tocqueville, and Servet Pëllumbi. The research was conducted step-by-step and argument-by-argument using the logic of reasoning and the analysis of ideas. The relevant research works relate to the UN’s role as a provider and guarantor of human rights and freedom. Results and Conclusions: In the opinion of the UN, the concept of democracy is closely related to the concept of protecting peace, freedom, and human rights. This is also the reason why the UN cannot remain indifferent in the face of cases of violation of freedoms and human rights under the pretext of respecting ‘state sovereignty’. The UN is today’s most important and powerful organisation for protecting human freedoms and rights, world peace, and international security. Based on the above discussion, a democratic society is nothing but the result of new relations between the power and freedom of an individual. ‘Human rights and freedoms’ do not constitute a mere bureaucratic formula but a request of the people for the development of the society in which they live. They resemble a ‘spiral’ that has only ascended since various theorists first presented their ideas on ‘human rights’. Infringement on human rights would simultaneously mark the infringement and the end of democracy itself.

The article considers the human right to a decent standard of living, its consolidation in international legal acts on human rights, constitutions and legislation of foreign states. It is emphasized that different terminology in the constitutions of states reflects a conflicting understanding of human rights, as well as the level of their development in a specific state. In this regard, different approaches to the studied terminology are observed in modern scientific literature. It is noted that a reliable idea of what constitutes the right to life and the right to a dignified life can be formed under the condition of synthesis of knowledge about what life is in general, as well as about the criteria of its dignity. The opinion expressed is that social and legal criteria for a dignified human life represent a multi-component open system. The level of self-realization of a person, acting in this system as an integral, system-creating criterion, is concretized into certain, quite important components: which make it possible to assess the sufficiency of material goods necessary to ensure the real possibility of realizing individual interests and needs; the sufficiency of intangible goods necessary to ensure the realization of individual interests and needs; legal guarantee and protection of the right to a dignified life. It was emphasized that the level of realization of the right to a decent life is influenced by various factors: state social policy, level of development of the social sphere in the country, living conditions of the population, lifestyle, investment climate, state of the environment, spirituality, socio-historical processes, income of the population, poverty and inequality, unemployment and labor force utilization, demographic dynamics, education and training, health, food and nutrition, housing conditions, infrastructure, communication, culture, social ties, family values, political and social stability, political and civil institutions. Based on the analysis of scientific points of view and legislation, the author comes to the conclusion that the right to a decent standard of living as a legal category is the minimum standard for satisfying human needs in various spheres: from physiological to spiritual. It includes social, economic and political rights that allow a person to be a worthy member of society, to develop freely in the conditions of security and social protection of the state. This right is enshrined in all the main international acts, both universal and regional, which define basic human rights and freedoms.

Humanity is facing nearly insurmountable challenges, risks, and crises. Resource depletion, global pollution of the entire biosphere, and climate change due to our excessive and uncontrollably growing human population may be the most difficult long-term problems that urgently need to be solved. However, the current influenza pandemic and other unforeseen but inevitable health emergencies including hunger, poverty, and a lack of universal public health infrastructure in the absence of stable country governments are common occurrences in our present world, and they will be increasingly problematic as our populations grow in a resource-depleted world. Conflicts including wars and terrorism, and a lack of reliable national and international leadership abetted by religious intolerance and corruption in governmental and religious institutions will contribute to the expected widespread failure of educational systems. Here, we shall address the causes and consequences of educational system failures, from elementary schools to universities. Public support and governmental programs must provide the essential resources for scholarly and successful schools, starting with K-12 and continuing up to our top universities. When education and research are not adequately supported by government funding, difficulties arise in all sectors of society, simply because knowledgeable people are not available to understand and interpret complex matters dealing with a community, a country, or the world. In fact, decision making that relies on irrational beliefs rather than knowledgeable understanding has a bleak future. Only education can provide logical assistance when formulating life's many strategies. The lack of it has arguably led to more personal and national disasters than any other source. Most individuals in a society do not have the means to obtain a sufficient education so they can attempt to understand and contribute optimally to the world in which we live. If public support is lacking, only the rich can afford it, and 99% of the citizens, who are among those most likely to have the greatest problem-solving potential, will not receive it. Even for the wealthy, no educational system can achieve its maximal potential when it is under-resourced. Moreover, proper operation requires excellence in instructors, infrastructure, modern technologies/equipment, and enrolled students. Educational institutions also require leadership, not just low-level administrative management. While numerous managers consider themselves leaders, those whom they manage know that this is too often simply wishful thinking. Individuals must assume responsibility when and where it is appropriate, but no further, in order to avoid poor educational performance resulting from excessive restrictions and inadequate training. Educational excellence must be a primary objective if humanity is ever to meet the many challenges that do and will continue to confront us. Our national and global problems demand highly knowledgeable people with advanced degrees in the humanities, science, medicine, agriculture, engineering, computing, business, and law. Strategies for solving challenges and identifying appropriate technologies must be correctly chosen and implemented by the most competent people or costly mistakes will result. An educated humanity is the key for teaching other people, including the next generation, how to understand the world we live in. Without it, there will be too many individuals who find themselves in a world they cannot understand. They will not even know how to gain knowledge and learning skills! They will lack the ability to peel back the complex layers of information to obtain the answers they need. Let us use a current example to illustrate the importance of education. We are in the midst of the H1N1 influenza pandemic. How many countries have the capacity to produce vaccines and antiviral drugs to be administered to their citizens? Even the developed countries are finding it impossible to meet their goals. Yet, many developing countries do not have the capacity—or the funds—required to develop or obtain the vaccine and drugs. They are dependent on companies, countries, and the World Health Organization (WHO) who can provide these public health resources. Some countries, perhaps rightly, have other serious economic, political, human rights, and technological problems that hinder operation of a successful vaccine facility. Only with an educated populous, could such a country develop the means to deal with the unexpected. Think of the thousands of other examples that require basic and advanced education. Knowledge that results from the achievement of advanced degrees is required for most other areas of human activities including agriculture, medicine, public health, communication, transportation, pollution control, birth control, financial regulation, international trade, diplomacy, conflict resolution, construction, manufacturing, alternative energy, and conservation. The list is endless. All countries need to recognize and accept the fact that education must be a priority and a human right. It is much more important than destructive religious conflicts and resource wars which can be avoided only through education. Countries need to educate their citizens while providing basic human rights and the basic necessities of life. Education, free from religious dogma, will allow people to control and reduce the human population in a humane, strategic manner. Education will allow countries to develop the skills, expertise, and infrastructure to provide basic and more advanced needs for all humans. No modernized, industrialized country can function without a properly resourced educational system. Education is the basis for a successfully evolving humanity. An adequate educational system would allow individuals to consider the evolution of a modern, stable democratic state that contributes to humanity by assisting in dealing with major crises. There are countries that have contributed little or nothing to humanity for centuries. They lack a stable form of governance, and basic human rights are violated regularly. An invitation might be extended on a continuous basis to their governmental leaders, offering them the opportunity to join humanity. Many will refuse, as they believe their way of governance is best. They are on the dark side, partly because they are not acting in a humane, democratic manner, but more often, because of their inadequate understanding. They do not provide educational opportunities because they themselves have not been educated. They do not understand its importance. They may never emerge from the dark ages. Such “so-called leaders” will not succeed if they allow themselves to be governed by ancient and corrupt religious precepts, or if they operate as unprincipled self-serving dictators. In spite of occasional transient successes, they and their countrymen and women will not contribute appreciably to science, technology, or the humanities. They simply do not understand the world in which we live; they have not learned to identify with the greater good of humanity. Education is the vehicle that can make the world a humane place for everyone. Education has as a priority objective the establishment and evolution of modern democracies. It can prevent one of the greatest of human tragedies. For satisfaction and happiness, we need to live in a world we can understand and contribute to. Ignorance may seem like bliss, but only for a very short period of time.

The usefulness of different models of disability is discussed. There is no clear-cut demarcation between ability and disability, and a person's functional abilities are highly dependent on societal as well as individual factors. One should not, however, promote models of disability that cover only the social aspects, but rather try to build comprehensive models including medical, psychological and social aspects of disability. The World Health Organization's International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH) provides a useful basis for such model building. The main weakness of the ICIDH is that it fails to take the subjective perceptions of the individual fully into account. Accordingly, it should be supplemented by some model of subjective well-being. Possible relationships between subjective well-being and the ICIDH concepts are discussed.

A classification of the consequences and severity of any chronic condition is essential to its adequate service provision and to the study of its rehabilitation. The World Health Organisation (WHO) classification, International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps (ICIDH), provided an initial framework in 1980. The recent revision of the ICIDH, ICIDH-2, goes some way towards normalising disablement. It also makes much clearer how disadvantage results from inability to engage and interact at a social level, a particular problem after brain injury. The benefits of an increase in activities of daily life after injury are often self-evident or justified by cost. Increases in social interaction also need to be qualified by validated measures of subjective well-being. These dimensions require exploration in the brain injured population.

Human rights and access to justice are fundamental pillars of any democratic society, serving as the bedrock for the protection of individual liberties and the rule of law. In Pakistan, where the Constitution of 1973 embodies principles of democracy, rule of law, and protection of fundamental rights, understanding the interplay between international human rights standards, constitutional provisions and mechanisms for access to justice is paramount. This research studies international standards on access to justice, examines the constitutional framework governing rights and justice in Pakistan, explores key provisions, landmark case laws, and the roles of relevant institutions.The research delves into international principle and guidelines on access to justice, the constitutional provisions safeguarding fundamental rights, including the right to life, liberty, equality, and due process, as enshrined in Articles 4, 9, 10, 14, and 25, (Constitution,1973) among others. It analyzes significant case laws from the Supreme Court of Pakistan which have shaped jurisprudence on constitutional rights and access to justice. Furthermore, the research highlights the roles of institutions like the judiciary, human rights commissions, legal aid organizations, and ombudsman institutions in promoting and protecting constitutional rights and facilitating access to justice for all citizens. By critically examining the constitutional provisions, case laws, and institutional frameworks, this research aims to provide insights into the challenges and opportunities in realizing constitutional rights and access to justice in Pakistan. It seeks to identify gaps in the legal framework, propose reforms for enhancing access to justice mechanisms, and offer recommendations for strengthening the protection of constitutional rights in line with international standards and best practices. Ultimately, this research contributes to the discourse on the intersection of international human rights law, constitutional law, and access to justice in the Pakistani context, with implications for policy, legal practice, and societal development.

The purpose of this chapter is to articulate an understanding of basic human rights that is sufficiently clear and cogent to serve as the core of a justice‐based moral theory of international law. To accomplish this goal, the concept of human rights is first analysed into its key elements, and the analysis is used to explain how assertions about human rights can be justified, and show that plausible justifications for basic human rights can be grounded in a diversity of moral and religious perspectives. Next, several objections to the claim that there are human rights or that they can play a fundamental role in a moral theory of international law are refuted, and it is argued that the right to minimally democratic governance should be included among the rights that international law ascribes to all persons—whether it is a human right or of instrumental value in securing human rights, or both. It is then shown that the use of coercion to protect basic human rights is compatible with a proper tolerance for the diversity of values, and the chapter concludes with a discussion of how the international legal order can cope with the ineliminable abstractness of human rights norms. The seven parts of the chapter are: I. Clarifying the Idea of Human Rights; II. The Justification of Assertions about the Existence of Human Rights; III. A Plurality of Converging Justifications for Human Rights; IV. Is democracy a Human Right?; V. Critiques of Human Rights; VI. Human Rights and the Bounds of Toleration; and VII. The Inelimable Indeterminacy of Human Rights and its Implications for the Moral Theory of International Law.

This chapter develops a Christian argument for the claim that human rights are Western by gathering some hints from human rights discourse. These various hints attribute to Christianity some developments considered vital for the emergence of the concept of human rights. The following examples help to illustrate the point: (1) Some scholars see in the provision for universal salvation in Christianity the seed idea of human rights, as against a salvation whose basis lay in a tribal or ethnic identity. (2) Christians could argue that as ‘all men are equal in the sight of God’, accordingly egalitarianism constitutes the essence of Christianity. (3) The concept of human rights is really a doctrine about the rights of individual human beings, and some scholars have argued that such a concept of ‘individuality’ may well be rooted in the Christian concept of the self. Two interesting points emerge from this discussion: (1) that the concept of rights can be connected with Christianity both when it is derived from an orientation of freedom or an orientation of responsibility, and (2) that these derivations can be located in relation to the debate which ‘focuses on the tension between the classical liberal concept of the individual rights of freedom on the one hand and social human rights on the other. the claim, that human rights are Western because they are Christian, is so ambiguous and cuts in so many directions that it can only be fleetingly entertained.

Strengthening the BTWC: The role of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in combating natural and deliberate disease outbreaks

Has the global informational economy and new division of labour left us unconcerned with unemployment resulting from technological displacement, negative trade impacts, and other economic policies? I propose to discuss, from a philosophical and analytical human rights framework, the Canadian and American situation to determine whether information technology (IT) is a “job killer.” There are empirical and ethical problems with Jeremy Rifkin's “end of work” and a failure of development strategies. While there is a positive role for information and communication technologies (ICTs) in sustainable development, the problem of pervasive poverty, especially in least developed countries, requires an international response to fulfill the basic human rights of persons and raises anew the ethical challenge of social solidarity and the mutuality of human rights and responsibilities in the informational economy.

BackgroundA new resolution on mental, neurological and substance use disorders was adopted in January 2012 by the World Health Organization (WHO) Executive Board. The resolution urges WHO and Member States to collaborate in the development of a comprehensive mental health action plan, to be submitted for discussion and approval to the WHO World Health Assembly. This commentary aims at rising awareness on the risk that this resolution may not fulfil its potential.DiscussionLack of political awareness and visibility of the resolution is a first major issue. Theoretically, Member States should be aware of the resolution and support its implementation at their respective national level, but in practice political commitment may not be high enough, and technical and financial resources made available may be limited. A second challenge is that the resolution suggests to work with Member States and technical agencies to promote academic exchange through which to contribute to policy-making in mental health. It is not straightforward, however, how such a statement may be effectively translated into action. A third key methodological aspect is how scientific evidence and factors other than scientific evidence will be handled. This seems particularly relevant in the field of mental health, where value-based decisions together with resource and feasibility considerations may be unavoidable.SummaryWe argue that WHO and Member States should work together to increase the visibility of the resolution, ensuring that Ministries of Health and other relevant components of the health systems are aware of the resolution and its implications. As the resolution urges for academic exchange, WHO should develop a plan for an explicit, inclusive and open call for support and collaboration, so that partners willing to contribute are not kept out from the process. The production of an action plan for mental disorders should be based on scientifically sound methodology. Such a methodology should be transparently described, for example in a WHO process document, to make it clear how individual-level recommendations and policy-level guidance are developed. WHO should establish and maintain an open forum of experts, scientists, health officials and user groups worldwide to interact and agree on values, preferences, feasibility, acceptability, implementability, equity and economic issues that should inform the action plan.