Linguistic Documentation of Software History

Downsides of Using Inadequate Open Source Software Processes and Licenses within Standard Development Organizations

Community-based Open Source Software (OSS) projects are generally self-organized and dynamic, receiving contributions from volunteers spread across the globe. These communities' survival, long-term success, and continuity demand a constant influx of newcomers. However, newcomers face many barriers when making their first contribution to an OSS project, leading in many cases to dropouts. Therefore, a major challenge for OSS projects is to provide ways to support newcomers during their first contribution. In this thesis, our goal was to identify and understand the barriers newcomers face and provide appropriate strategies to lower these barriers. Toward this end, we conducted multiple studies, using multiple research methods. To identify the barriers, we used data collected from: semi-structured interviews with 35 developers from 13 different projects; 24 answers to an open questionnaire conducted with OSS developers; feedback from 9 graduate and undergraduate students after they tried to join OSS projects; and 20 primary studies gathered via a systematic literature review. The data was analyzed using Grounded Theory procedures: namely, open and axial coding. Subsequently, the analysis resulted in a preliminary conceptual model composed of 58 barriers grouped into six categories: cultural differences, newcomers' characteristics, reception issues, newcomers' orientation, technical hurdles, and documentation problems. Based on the conceptual model, we developed FLOSScoach, a portal to support newcomers making their first OSS project contribution. To assess the portal, we conducted a study with undergraduate students, relying on qualitative data from diaries, self-efficacy questionnaires, and the Technology Acceptance Model. By applying the model to a practical application and assessing it, we could evaluate and improve the barriers model, changing it according to improvements identified during the conception of the tool, as well as suggestions received from the study participants. The FLOSScoach study results indicate that the portal played an important role guiding newcomers and lowering barriers related to the orientation and contribution process, whereas it was inefficient in lowering technical barriers. We also found that the portal is useful, easy to use, and increased newcomers' confidence to contribute. The main contributions of this thesis are: (i) empirical identification and modeling of barriers faced by OSS project newcomers; and (ii) a portal providing information to support OSS project newcomers.

One of the recurrent themes in open source software research is to understand the impacts of various project characteristics on its success. Open source software (OSS) projects rely on voluntary participation of developers and tend to be continually in development. Hence, an important measure of success is the time it takes for an OSS project to release a stable version to its users. However, there is little research on this success measure and how the OSS characteristics enable or delay the progress towards stable release. In this study, we use survival analysis technique on open source project data to explore the impacts of OSS characteristics on the time it takes to release stable software versions. We find that when compared to the interest of developers in the project, interest of end-users has a greater positive effect on an OSS project progress towards stable release. Our findings also suggest that the use of C and C-like programming languages or a Weak-Copyleft license for the open source project negatively impact the project’s time to reach stable status. In OSS projects less than 8 months since becoming public, the use of a Strong-Copyleft license positively affects the project’s progress. One of the implications of our findings is that OSS project administrators should control software change requests or form smaller developer groups to better control the delays due to higher developer interest in their projects.

<p>The purpose of this research was to identify factors that affect participants’ satisfaction with their experience of a free/libre open source software (FLOSS) project. The research built on existing models of user satisfaction from the information systems literature, and also incorporated two characteristics of FLOSS projects first identified by Ye, Nakakoji, Yamamoto, and Kishida (2005), product openness and process openness. The central research question it answered was, What factors influence participant satisfaction with a free/libre and open source application software project? Richard Stallman’s reasons for setting up the GNU project and the Free Software Foundation arose from his frustration at being forced to be a passive user of software used for a Xerox printer. These suggest that being able to be an active participant in a FLOSS project is one factor that should be examined, and therefore the first sub-question this project answers is, What types of contributions do participants make to free/libre and open source software projects? Several studies have shown that the extent of participation in a FLOSS project varies from individual to individual, and this variation leads to the second sub-question, Do the factors that influence satisfaction vary for different types of participation? If so, in what way? A preliminary conceptual model of factors affecting participant satisfaction was developed, reflecting the key concepts identified in the literature. The main theoretical goal of this research was to test the model using empirical data. The research used a sequential, mixed methods approach. The first, qualitative stage involved reviewing documents from selected projects and interviewing a purposive sample of FLOSS project participants. The second, quantitative stage involved an online survey of FLOSS project participants, and the data gathered were used to test the conceptual model. The results of the first stage showed that participation in FLOSS projects was a more complex construct than previously reported in the literature. Seven distinct categories of activities were identified: • use; • interaction with code; • supporting the community; • outreach; • sponsorship; • management; and • governance. Four attributes that modified these categories were also identified: organisational focus, role formality, remuneration, and time commitment. Data from 154 responses to the online survey were used to test the model using stepwise multiple regression, which determined the effect of each of the variables on overall participant satisfaction. Moderated regression analysis was used to test the effects of three potential moderating variables. The results showed that that perceived system complexity had the largest effect, decreasing satisfaction if respondents perceived that the software was complex, while project openness and perceived developer communication quality accounted for the most variance in satisfaction. The main theoretical contribution of this research lies in its extension of satisfaction studies to FLOSS communities, showing that communication and openness are more important than in conventional software projects. Its practical contribution will help people involved in the management and governance of FLOSS projects to identify ways of increasing their participants’ satisfaction, which may in turn encourage them to contribute more.</p>

<p>The purpose of this research was to identify factors that affect participants’ satisfaction with their experience of a free/libre open source software (FLOSS) project. The research built on existing models of user satisfaction from the information systems literature, and also incorporated two characteristics of FLOSS projects first identified by Ye, Nakakoji, Yamamoto, and Kishida (2005), product openness and process openness. The central research question it answered was, What factors influence participant satisfaction with a free/libre and open source application software project? Richard Stallman’s reasons for setting up the GNU project and the Free Software Foundation arose from his frustration at being forced to be a passive user of software used for a Xerox printer. These suggest that being able to be an active participant in a FLOSS project is one factor that should be examined, and therefore the first sub-question this project answers is, What types of contributions do participants make to free/libre and open source software projects? Several studies have shown that the extent of participation in a FLOSS project varies from individual to individual, and this variation leads to the second sub-question, Do the factors that influence satisfaction vary for different types of participation? If so, in what way? A preliminary conceptual model of factors affecting participant satisfaction was developed, reflecting the key concepts identified in the literature. The main theoretical goal of this research was to test the model using empirical data. The research used a sequential, mixed methods approach. The first, qualitative stage involved reviewing documents from selected projects and interviewing a purposive sample of FLOSS project participants. The second, quantitative stage involved an online survey of FLOSS project participants, and the data gathered were used to test the conceptual model. The results of the first stage showed that participation in FLOSS projects was a more complex construct than previously reported in the literature. Seven distinct categories of activities were identified: • use; • interaction with code; • supporting the community; • outreach; • sponsorship; • management; and • governance. Four attributes that modified these categories were also identified: organisational focus, role formality, remuneration, and time commitment. Data from 154 responses to the online survey were used to test the model using stepwise multiple regression, which determined the effect of each of the variables on overall participant satisfaction. Moderated regression analysis was used to test the effects of three potential moderating variables. The results showed that that perceived system complexity had the largest effect, decreasing satisfaction if respondents perceived that the software was complex, while project openness and perceived developer communication quality accounted for the most variance in satisfaction. The main theoretical contribution of this research lies in its extension of satisfaction studies to FLOSS communities, showing that communication and openness are more important than in conventional software projects. Its practical contribution will help people involved in the management and governance of FLOSS projects to identify ways of increasing their participants’ satisfaction, which may in turn encourage them to contribute more.</p>

The majority of contributions to community open source software (OSS) projects are made by practitioners acting on behalf of companies and other organisations. Previous research has addressed the motivations of both individuals and companies to engage with OSS projects. However, limited research has been undertaken that examines and explains the practical mechanisms or work practices used by companies and their developers to pursue their commercial and technical objectives when engaging with OSS projects. This research investigates the variety of work practices used in public communication channels by company contributors to engage with and contribute to eight community OSS projects. Through interviews with contributors to the eight projects we draw on their experiences and insights to explore the motivations to use particular methods of contribution. We find that companies utilise work practices for contributing to community projects which are congruent with the circumstances and their capabilities that support their short- and long-term needs. We also find that companies contribute to community OSS projects in ways that may not always be apparent from public sources, such as employing core project developers, making donations, and joining project steering committees in order to advance strategic interests. The factors influencing contributor work practices can be complex and are often dynamic arising from considerations such as company and project structure, as well as technical concerns and commercial strategies. The business context in which software created by the OSS project is deployed is also found to influence contributor work practices.

An Open Source Software (OSS) project can be considered as a new type of business entity involving various roles and stakeholders, e.g., project managers, developers, and users, who apply individual methods. The project managers have the responsibility to manage the OSS development in a way that the OSS product can be delivered to the customers in time and with good quality. This responsibility is challenging, because the heterogeneity of the data collected and analyzed from different stakeholders leads to the complexity of efforts of the project managers to measure and manage OSS projects. In this paper, we propose a measurement framework (OSMF) to enable the project managers to collect and analyze process data from OSS projects efficiently. Initial results show that OSMF can help project managers to manage OSS business processes more efficient, hence improve the decision on OSS project quality.

But what will it cost me? How do private costs of participation affect open source software projects?

Community-based Open Source Software (OSS) projects are usually self-organized and dynamic, receiving contributions from distributed volunteers. Newcomer are important to the survival, long-term success, and continuity of these communities. However, newcomers face many barriers when making their first contribution to an OSS project, leading in many cases to dropouts. Therefore, a major challenge for OSS projects is to provide ways to support newcomers during their first contribution. In this paper, we propose and evaluate FLOSScoach, a portal created to support newcomers to OSS projects. FLOSScoach was designed based on a conceptual model of barriers created in our previous work. To evaluate the portal, we conducted a study with 65 students, relying on qualitative data from diaries, self-efficacy questionnaires, and the Technology Acceptance Model. The results indicate that FLOSScoach played an important role in guiding newcomers and in lowering barriers related to the orientation and contribution process, whereas it was not effective in lowering technical barriers. We also found that FLOSScoach is useful, easy to use, and increased newcomers' confidence to contribute. Our results can help project maintainers on deciding the points that need more attention in order to help OSS project newcomers overcome entry barriers.

Open-source software (OSS) projects are relatively unexplored territory in music education research and practice. In contrast to commercial software development, OSS projects are informally organized and free in terms of administration and control. Developers contribute in several ways according to their own will and whenever they want. In music education, the possible OSS project stakeholders can vary from independent developers to researchers, schools and commercial companies. The structure of this multifaceted collaboration scheme can be very diverse and complex. This article will present a case from a sponsored music educational open-source project that developed a mobile phone-based music software for children. The characteristics of collaboration, project structure, roles of different stakeholders and open-source licensing from this project will shed light on different aspects and characteristics of OSS development in music education. As a conclusion, an iterative process model for OSS projects in music education will be drawn.

Complex software development projects rely on the contribution of teams of developers, who are required to collaborate and coordinate their efforts. The productivity of such development teams, i.e., how their size is related to the produced output, is an important consideration for project and schedule management as well as for cost estimation. The majority of studies in empirical software engineering suggest that - due to coordination overhead - teams of collaborating developers become less productive as they grow in size. This phenomenon is commonly paraphrased as Brooks' law of software project management, which states that "adding manpower to a software project makes it later". Outside software engineering, the non-additive scaling of productivity in teams is often referred to as the Ringelmann effect, which is studied extensively in social psychology and organizational theory. Conversely, a recent study suggested that in Open Source Software (OSS) projects, the productivity of developers increases as the team grows in size. Attributing it to collective synergetic effects, this surprising finding was linked to the Aristotelian quote that "the whole is more than the sum of its parts". Using a data set of 58 OSS projects with more than 580,000 commits contributed by more than 30,000 developers, in this article we provide a large-scale analysis of the relation between size and productivity of software development teams. Our findings confirm the negative relation between team size and productivity previously suggested by empirical software engineering research, thus providing quantitative evidence for the presence of a strong Ringelmann effect. Using fine-grained data on the association between developers and source code files, we investigate possible explanations for the observed relations between team size and productivity. In particular, we take a network perspective on developer-code associations in software development teams and show that the magnitude of the decrease in productivity is likely to be related to the growth dynamics of co-editing networks which can be interpreted as a first-order approximation of coordination requirements.

A systematic literature review on the barriers faced by newcomers to open source software projects

In this paper, we define and validate a new multidimensional measure of Open Source Software (OSS) project survivability, called Project Viability. Project viability has three dimensions: vigor, resilience, and organization. We define each of these dimensions and formulate an index called the Viability Index (VI) to combine all three dimensions. Archival data of projects hosted at SourceForge.net are used for the empirical validation of the measure. An Analysis Sample (n=136) is used to assign weights to each dimension of project viability and to determine a suitable cut-off point for VI. Cross-validation of the measure is performed on a hold-out Validation Sample (n=96). We demonstrate that project viability is a robust and valid measure of OSS project survivability that can be used to predict the failure or survival of an OSS project accurately. It is a tangible measure that can be used by organizations to compare various OSS projects and to make informed decisions regarding investment in the OSS domain.

This work presents Source-o-grapher, a tool built with the aim to investigate software resilience aspects of Open Source Software (OSS) projects. The tool uses several metrics from the literature to evaluate an OSS project on four major dimensions: structural (source code), business and legal, integration and social (community of the project). Many of these metrics are automatically acquired by the tool using the Github repository of the project whereas some others are manually input by the expert who performs the analysis.

The contingent role of interproject connectedness in cultivating open source software projects