<span>Diffusion of Genetically Modified Crop Technology</span>

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been developed and commercialized in many countries for the past decade. The regulations on these GMOs in Korea have been established through the labeling and safety evaluation systems for management of genetically modified (GM) foods under the Food Sanitation Act enacted by the Korea Food and Drug Administration (KFDA). To manage these regulations effectively, several methods for GMO detection, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods and immunoassay, are applied. For detection of GMOs at the level of DNA, primers from the promoter, terminator, other marker genes, and expressed proteins used in a wide range of GMOs were designed for single, multiplex, real-time PCR, and microarray applications. In Korea, multiplex PCR methods specific to GM soybean, maize, canola, and cotton were designed. The limit of detection (LOD) value was determined to be 1 % of GM mixtures, which is a significant value for the PCR method used for the labeling threshold in Korea. A DNA microarray chip was also developed for the detection of 24 GMOs, including GM soybeans, 13 GM maizes, 3 GM canolas, 5 GM cottons, and 1 GM rice. This DNA chip was proven to successfully detect GMOs from raw and processed foods. In the near future, more powerful screening and detection methods are needed for handling many kinds of GMOs and unauthorized GMOs.

Black M, Bewley JD, eds. 2000. Seed technology and its biological basis. 419 pp. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. £89 (hardback).

In 2004 the United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER) embarked on a large-scale research project on the ‘Impact of Globalization on the World’s Poor’ co-directed by Machiko Nissanke and Erik Thorbecke. The first conference was essentially conceptual in nature, meant to understand better the various mechanisms and channels through which globalization affects the poor either directly or indirectly. The other three conferences focused on each of the major regions of the developing world: Asia, Africa and Latin America. Theobjectivesofthisintroductionarethreefold:first,toreviewbrieflyhow the forces of globalization influence poverty in general; second, to describe and discuss the main transmission channels and mechanisms; and third to analyze the impact of globalization on Africa and present an overview of the six Africa case studies included in this issue. 1. The Impact of Globalization on the World’s Poor Globalization provides a strong potential for a major reduction in poverty in the developing world because it creates an environment conducive to fastereconomicgrowthandtransmissionofknowledge. 1 However,structural factors and policies within the world economy and national economies have impeded the full transmission of the benefits of the various channels of globalization for poverty reduction. In particular sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) hasbeenrelativelylessaffectedbytheforcesofglobalizationthanotherparts of the world. World income distribution continues to be very unequal and many poor countries particularly in Africa are stagnating. Moreover, there is much empirical evidence that openness contributes to more within-country

There is an increasing concern about the coexistence between GM (genetically modified) and non-GM (non-genetically modified) crops. Maize (Zea mays L.) is a cross-pollinated crop, so pollen dispersion is an important way of gene flow (pollen-mediated gene flow, PMGF) in maize. Cross-pollination can occur between non-GM maize planted in open environments next to GM maize field. Therefore, the combination of isolation distance and border rows could keep the gene flow less than labeling threshold. The field experiments were conducted at Taiwan (R.O.C) Agricultural Research Institute in Wufeng District, Taichung City in 2009 and 2010. There were two crop seasons in each year. In our study, the Black Pearl (source plot: purple kernel) was planted in the center while the White Pearl (receptor plot: white kernel) was planted in the surroundings in 2009. In 2010, using four varieties (Honey 236, Black Pearl, Tainung 1, Tainung 4) to simulate GM maize as pollen source and using Snow Jean to simulate non-GM maize as receptor. Our objectives was to confirm the isolation of maize from gene flow by distance (2009 experiment) and time (2010 experiment). Overall, when the isolation distance was 18.75 m (pollen source and pollen receptor synchrony in flowering times), the mean of outcrossing rate can decrease to 0.64%. We provide a security distance between GM and non-GM fields of about 20 m should be sufficient to maintain the adventitious presence of GM maize from gene flow below the 0.9% threshold (labelling threshold in the European Union). Increasing temporal separation reduced the distance required to achieve gene flow isolation. Outcrossing rate was <0.9% at 0.75m when 1 week of temporal separation was used. In previous researches, atmospheric dispersion model was used to simulate the pollen spread of maize. However, in this study, the simplified Gaussian plume model was fitted well (R2=0.845) for the outcrossing rate data. In our study, a model based on Gaussian plume model was used to calculate the pollen concentration and pollution rate of non-GM maize by GM maize in down wind. The modified model of Gaussian plume model can simulate the outcrossing rate of serious cases by simple parameters (data from 2009-1 and 2009-2), which also could provide an useful tool to control coexistence of GM and non-GM maize in the future.

For more than 20 years cotton has been the most widely sown genetically modified (GM) crop in Mexico. Its cultivation has fulfilled all requirements and has gone through the different regulatory stages. During the last 20 years, both research-institutions and biotech-companies have generated scientific and technical information regarding GM cotton cultivation in Mexico. In this work, we collected data in order to analyze the environmental and agronomic effects of the use of GM cotton in Mexico. In 1996, the introduction of Bt cotton made it possible to reactivate this crop, which in previous years was greatly reduced due to pest problems, production costs and environmental concerns. Bt cotton is a widely accepted tool for cotton producers and has proven to be efficient for the control of lepidopteran pests. The economic benefits of its use are variable, and depend on factors such as the international cotton-prices and other costs associated with its inputs. So far, the management strategies used to prevent development of insect resistance to GM cotton has been successful, and there are no reports of insect resistance development to Bt cotton in Mexico. In addition, no effects have been observed on non-target organisms. For herbicide tolerant cotton, the prevention of herbicide resistance has also been successful since unlike other countries, the onset of resistance weeds is still slow, apparently due to cultural practices and rotation of different herbicides. Environmental benefits have been achieved with a reduction in chemical insecticide applications and the subsequent decrease in primary pest populations, so that the inclusion of other technologies—e.g., use of non-Bt cotton- can be explored. Nevertheless, control measures need to be implemented during transport of the bolls and fiber to prevent dispersal of volunteer plants and subsequent gene flow to wild relatives distributed outside the GM cotton growing areas. It is still necessary to implement national research programs, so that biotechnology and plant breeding advances can be used in the development of cotton varieties adapted to the Mexican particular environmental conditions and to control insect pests of regional importance.

In recent years, the influence of genetically modified (GM) cotton expressing different types of Bt and EPSPS genes has been attested in term of reduced application of pesticides and insecticides coupled with improved cotton production. Although the cultivation of GM cotton has been authorized by the regulatory authorities of various countries in the world, based on the biosafety studies reported by most of the GM cotton producers, yet the information on its safe use are inadequate. In order to support the issues on food safety, it is therefore mandatory to conduct further safety assessment studies on GM cotton for each independent transgenic event on the basis of case assessment rule. In the present study, the effects of different doses of dietary GM cotton seed expressing Bt and EPSPS genes were studied on the level of serum biochemical in albino rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The rabbits were fed a diet containing different levels of GM cotton seeds (i.e., 20, 30, and 40% w/w) respectively mixed with standard diet for 180 days. During the course of the study, various serum enzymes, electrolytes, proteins, glucose and serum total cholesterol were examined at specific time intervals (0, 45, 90, 135, and 180) days. The results showed non-significant (P > 0.05) dose dependent effects in most of the evaluated serum biochemical parameters. Although, the results in some of the serum biochemistry were significantly different (P < 0.05) among the groups, however, they were not biologically significant, since all the differences were within the normal physiological range. These results thus, suggested that the GM cotton seed meal could be considered as safe as other conventional feed ingredients. The experimental evidence for the safe usage of GM cotton was highlighted in this study.

IntroductionHighly efficient animal rearing would be impossible without the use of high-protein feed. In Europe the main source of feed protein has become soybean meal imported from South America, where the majority of it is genetically modified. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of genetically modified (GM) plant material in feed on the Polish market.Material and MethodsThe study material consisted of feed materials and compound feed samples collected as part of the Official Feed Control Plan in 2018–2024. Methods recommended for use in official testing by the European Union Reference Laboratory for Genetically Modified Food and Feed were used to identify GM organism (GMO) presence.ResultsBetween 2018 and 2024, 171 (53.9%) positive samples were identified, all with GM soybean presence. No GM maize or GM rapeseed was identified. The majority of positive samples contained three GM soybean varieties: MON 40-3-2, MON 89788 and MON 87701. The results from samples taken at the eastern Polish border varied from one survey year to the next, revealing GMO presence ranging from 0% to 80%, and the entirety of the GMO content to be soybean.ConclusionThe high-protein soybean meal in poultry and pig farming is in part derived from GM soybeans grown in third countries. Other feed crops like maize and rapeseed are GMO-free or contaminated with GMOs only at low levels.

Imports of genetically modified (GM) soybeans (Glycine max) for food or feed consumption in Korea have been increasing. Although the cultivation of GM soybeans has not yet been allowed in Korea, the number of field tests for GM soybeans has also been rising. This study was conducted to investigate whether herbicide tolerant GM soybean can survive and persist in uncultivated environments when they escape from transportation routes or from isolated fields. Seeds of GM and non-GM soybeans and wild soybeans (Glycine soja) were buried in 2 and 15 cm soil depths and their viability was examined after 1, 2, 6, and 10 months. GM and non-GM soybean seeds completely lost their viability within six months of burial, whereas seeds of wild soybean maintained their viability during the study period. Seeds of soybean and wild soybeans that were sown on the soil surface germinated and grew to vegetative cotyledon stage. Seedlings of GM and non-GM soybean did not compete well with weeds, including Cerastium glomeratum, Alopecurus aequalis var. amurensis, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Conyza canadensis, Stellaria aquatica, and Erigeron annuus. Also, GM soybean did not survive through winter. However, wild soybeans competed well with the weeds and became dominant in August. Herbicide tolerant GM soybean is unlikely to persist under uncultivated environments and to become weeds.

The public concern about pollen-mediated gene flow (PGF) from genetically modified (GM) crops to non-GM crops heats up in recent years over China. In the current study, we conducted greenhouse and field experiments to measure PGF with various physical isolation measures, including 90, 80, 60 and 40 holes/cm2 separation nets and Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays and Lycopersicon esculentum separation crops between GM cotton and non-GM line (Shiyuan321) by seed DNA test during 2013 to 2015, and pollen grain dyeing was also conducted to assess the pollen flow in greenhouse during 2013. Our results revealed that (1) PGF varied depending on the physical isolation measures. PGF was the lowest with 90 holes/cm2 separation net and S. bicolor separation crop, and the highest with 40 holes/cm2 separation net and no isolation measure. (2) Similar to PGF results, 90 holes/cm2 separation net and S. bicolor separation crop could minimize the pollen dispersal. (3) PGF declined exponentially with increasing distance between GM cotton and Shiyuan321. Because of the production mode of farm household (limited cultivated area) in China, our study is particularly important, which is not only benefit for constraining PGF, but also has potential application value in practical production and the scientific researches.

BackgroundRoundup Ready became the most cultivated genetically modified (GM) crop in the world. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of a diet containing GM soybean meal (RUR) on male and female Wistar rats. The body weights, food consumption, hematology, serum biochemistry, organ weight, and histopathological examination were compared between rats fed on GM soybean and those fed non-GM soybean after consumption of test diets for 18 weeks.MethodsSixty weaned Wistar albino rats (30 females and 30 males) were randomly assigned to three groups of ten rats for each group per each sex. All rats have been fed either a diet containing 0% GM soybean meal (control), 50% GM soybean meal (T1), and 100% GM soybean (T2). The body weights, food consumption, hematology, serum biochemistry, organ weight, and histopathological examination were compared between rats fed GM soybean and those fed non-GM Soybean after consumption of test diets for 18 weeks.ResultsExamined hematological parameters did not indicate a statistically significant difference between the GM soybean-fed groups (T1 and T2) and their respective controls, though the WBCs of the male of treated groups (T1 and T2), platelets count, and hemoglobin (HB) of the female of (T1) group were slightly elevated. The examined biochemical blood parameters showed that the level of triglycerides (TG) was statistically significantly higher in the female treated groups (T1 and T2) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) was significantly higher in treated groups compared to their respective controls. Elevated levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and creatinine were observed in some of the treated groups. Histopathological examination of selected organs (liver, kidney, and pancreas) and testes or ovaries and female mammary gland revealed histological alterations among different treated groups (T1 and T2) with their respective controls.ConclusionThe obtained results indicate the necessity to revise the safety standards of consumption of diets containing GM soybean.

Pollen-mediated gene flow in the cultivation of transgenic cotton under experimental field conditions in Spain

Glyphosate-tolerant, Roundup Ready (RR) soybeans account for about 57% of all genetically modified (GM) crops grown worldwide. The entry of recombinant DNA into soil from GM crops has been identified as an environmental concern due to the possibility of their horizontal transfer to soil microorganisms. RR soybeans contain recombinant gene sequences that can be differentiated from wild-type plant and microbial genes in soil by using a sequence-specific molecular beacon and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A molecular beacon-based real-time PCR system to quantify a wild-type soybean lectin ( le1) gene was designed to compare amounts of endogenous soybean genes to recombinant DNA in soil. Microcosm studies were carried out to develop methodologies for the detection of recombinant DNA from RR soybeans in soil. RR soybean leaf litterbags were imbedded in the soil under controlled environmental conditions (60% water holding capacity, 10/15 degrees C, and 8/16 h day/night) for 30 days. The soybean biomass decomposition was described using a single-phase exponential equation, and the DNA concentration in planta and in soil was quantified using real-time PCR using sequence-specific molecular beacons for the recombinant cp4 epsps and endogenous soybean lectin ( le1) genes. The biomass of RR soybean leaves was 8.6% less than nontransgenic (NT) soybean leaves after 30 days. The pooled half-disappearance time for cp4 epsps and le1 in RR and of le1 in NT soybean leaves was 1.4 days. All genes from leaves were detected in soil after 30 days. This study provides a methodology for monitoring the entry of RR and NT soybean DNA into soil from decomposing plant residues.

Genetically modified (GM) crops may threaten agrobiodiversity because: (1) genetic material could escape into and subsequently alter non-GM species; and (2) GM crops encourage farmers along an agronomic feedback loop encouraging input-intensive monocultures. However, in the Warangal district of Telangana, India, GM cotton farms also contain nearly 100 semi-managed vegetables, trees, and wild plants belonging to 39 botanical families. While farmers continue to plant poorly understood, deceptively labeled Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner) cotton seeds in their fields, they also maintain an average of 17 other plants on the same farms for home economic needs. This paper draws on surveys, field interviews, and ethnography conducted among randomly sampled Bt cotton farmers to show the full range of economic plants cultivated on Warangal GM farms. In doing so, I argue that some farmers have been able to preserve agrobiodiversity despite the pressures of GM cotton cash cropping. That agrobiodiversity has potential benefits for Indigenous knowledge and drawbacks for environmental and health concerns.

Monitoring the occurrence of genetically modified maize at a grain receiving port and along transportation routes in the Republic of Korea

Genetically modified (GM) crops have been provided as food and feed in over 70 countries in the world. But the concern is persisting on their comprehensive effects on human health status as feedstock. Physiological indicators detected in human beings or animals were explored to assess the health status after GM crop consumption. Here, a mammalian physiological indicators data set with seven metrics containing 25 physiological indicators was constructed by extracting the experimental raw data from the open access research articles published from January 2000 to September 2024 on GM maize, rice, and soybean consumption. To overcome the experimental heterogeneity in disparate model animals, limited animal number in each independent research, and statistical errors caused by different statistical methods, the multi-sourced data correlation analysis with DerSimonian and Laird random-effect model was employed. The result revealed that the concentration of glucose increased after nutritionally changed maize consumption (GLU, p < .01), but within the safe reference concentration range; the relative weight of liver increased after non-nutritional GM maize consumption (p < .05); the relative weight of kidney was the physiological indicators that significantly increased after nutritionally changed GM rice consumption (p < .05). No pathological characterizations in respective organs were reported. The findings indicated no pathological risks from GM crop consumption, though they emphasized the need for continued research into their metabolic and biochemical effects to ensure comprehensive food safety.