Modelling of Maritime Cyber Security Education and Training

Global maritime traffic is increasing, and the development of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) is progressing. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is developing regulations for the introduction of MASS, and aims to issue a mandatory MASS Code in 2032. In preparation for the increasing realization of MASS, research on Maritime Education and Training (MET) based on International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for seafarers, 1978 (STCW) is being conducted, however studies have not yet been carried out on the implications for MET as defined by various international regulations such as International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS) other than STCW. The purpose of this paper is to capture an overview of the changes in MET that are not limited to STCW in regards to the advent of MASS by conducting a questionnaire of professional seafarers in ocean shipping companies. Cooperation was obtained from 100 captains and deck officers to clarify this objective. An analysis of the survey results indicated that “Watchkeeping” was the most selected item for matters related to STCW. Other results showed that Safety Management System, which is specified in International Safety Management Code, and Ship Security Plan, which is specified in International Ship and Port Facility Security Code were major points of consideration for the respondents.

Developing countries, despite being the major suppliers of maritime manpower, lag in their future-proof competence development. This study explores whether the current maritime education and training (MET) practices for marine engineering education in a developing nation are perceived as sufficient by the early-stage marine engineers. The current competence requirements set by the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW’74 as amended) are compared and contrasted against the current MET practices as well as the future needs for remotely controlled autonomous ship operations. Bangladesh, a maritime nation in the Southeast Asia region was selected as a developing nation for this study. An online survey was conducted among early-stage professional marine engineers. The analysis of 62 valid responses revealed that current MET practices are significantly perceived to be satisfactory for acquiring non-technical competencies, such as being proficient in the English language, but are less satisfactory for instilling technical competencies such as of electrical and electronics, knowledge regarding seaworthiness of ships, as well as medical first aid. In addition, the findings highlight the perceived gaps in existing marine engineering education as well as the need for future studies focused on re-training the future maritime workforce that could potentially improve MET strategies and practices in the developing nations.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine, through the lenses of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the imperative of curricular re-structuring in maritime education and training (MET) and the use of market needs analysis to prevent misalignment between training and ultimate job market need. Design/methodology/approach Peer-reviewed material was analyzed, and this examination was undertaken by looking at the literature on curriculum design, curriculum planning and curriculum evaluation. Attention was then given as to how these elements of curriculum should be applied to the discipline of MET and its didactics. This was twinned with an examination of the industry needs met by the delivery of the MET content. Findings The study found that the MET sector must respond to change to remain relevant and viable. This imperative of evolution in response to change is equally a truism for the business of shipping (to include the merchant marine industry, cruise tourism and hospitality) as it is for the business of higher education (HE), specifically MET. Practical implications The review saw where in 2017 the President of Rolls Royce Marine declared that “Autonomous shipping is the future of the maritime industry”. With this innovation, market needs for skills will shift from the able-bodied seafarer to a robust knowledge base in cyber-physical systems (CPSs). Just as the internet transformed how humans interact with one another, CPSs will transform how we interact with the physical world around us. This reality will necessitate change in instruction, curriculum planning and outcome in MET. Social implications Many educational institutions which are stuck in traditional didactics are on the cusp of closure because technology-enhanced learning has overtaken and outstripped the old ways. Indeed, technology and innovation are sounding the death knell for traditional didactics in MET. Originality/value The paper examines the discipline of MET as unique and robust area of specialized HE. MET focuses on the equipping of the human element in shipping. It is the engine behind a multi-billion-dollar industry that is driven by the global trade that is facilitated by ships and ports. This trade extends to the maritime tourism and hospitality business. This paper is of value to maritime educators and trainers in the cruise and hospitality industry. Herein is the significance of this review.

This study reviews literature of simulation-based training and assessment to trace conceptual developments in maritime education and training (MET). Our aim is to highlight and examine the historical trajectory of salient topics in MET with the goal of help developing the field forward. The investigation is based on articles published from 1961 to 2021 (n = 87) on simulation-based training and assessment in maritime academic journals. The first review of its kind in MET, the study combines quantitative topic modelling and qualitative content analyses of exemplary texts. Our study investigates: (a) how training and assessment in simulations are conceptualised in MET research and (b) how these conceptualisations have developed over the decades. Our review reveals an educational field dominated by human factors research and dedicated to upholding industry standards. Moreover, adopting quantitative text mining we identified four prominent topics in the literature. These revolve around management of resources, academic performance, simulator training and authentic assessment. A more in-depth qualitative content analysis of the model, tracing conceptual developments over time, suggests that the word ‘learning’ occurs for the first time in 1980. As a concept for scientific inquiry, learning does not gain prominence in the literature on simulation in MET before 2021. Our results suggest some future directions of research and offer a methodological framework for future reviews in maritime affairs that combines quantitative topic modelling with qualitative content analysis.

The Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping (STCW) Convention and Code are undergoing a comprehensive review by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), intending to adopt amendments by 2031, to ensure Maritime Education and Training (MET) remain aligned with technological and regulatory change. This study investigates how Human Element, Training and Watchkeeping (HTW) delegations conceptualise (i) the integration of emerging educational technologies and (ii) mechanisms to facilitate flexible, high-quality training environments within this review. A qualitative design was employed, combining document analysis of HTW submissions and proposals with semi-structured interviews, which were analysed using thematic analysis. Findings highlight opportunities to enhance competence development through advanced simulation technologies and to expand blended and flexible training models. However, persistent challenges were identified, including inconsistent interpretations of STCW standards, global disparities in simulator quality and training resources, and the lack of clear guidance for integrating new technologies into MET frameworks. The study offers actionable insights for maritime educators, including curriculum adaptation and instructor development, as well as for policymakers, such as establishing baseline simulator standards and harmonising interpretations of STCW provisions. The results contribute to ongoing discussions on aligning MET with the evolving demands of a digitalised and sustainable maritime sector.

Fully immersive engine room simulators are increasingly recognised as prominent tools in advancing maritime education and training. However, end-users’ acceptance of these innovative technologies remains insufficiently explored. To address this research gap, this case-specific pilot study applied the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to explore maritime engineering students’ intentions to adopt the newly introduced head-mounted display (HMD) virtual reality (VR) engine room simulator as a training tool. Sampling (N = 84) was conducted at the Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, during the initial simulator trials. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) revealed that perceived usefulness was the primary determinant of students’ behavioural intention to accept the simulator as a tool for training purposes, acting both as a direct predictor and as a mediating variable, transmitting the positive effect of perceived ease of use onto the intention. By providing preliminary empirical evidence on the key factors influencing maritime engineering students’ intentions to adopt HMD-VR simulation technologies within existing training programmes, this study’s findings might offer valuable insights to software developers and educators in shaping future simulator design and enhancing pedagogical practices in alignment with maritime education and training (MET) standards.

The Ministry of Education (MOE) should focus on the provision of quality academic programme as awareness to face the trends and challenges in the era-globalization. Maritime education and Training (MET) is presently facing many challenges thus to sustain a pool of qualified and competent profession is at a risk. The strong factors affect the implementation of maritime education and training which may help the MET compete with other education fields in the educational institution. MET execution will be able to produce manpower that equip with the skills and knowledge with quality exposure either for maritime education institution.

The prevalence of digital technologies is growing in the maritime industry, as in other sectors. Consequently, concerns regarding cyber risks are also escalating. Incidents have occurred in the industry, and findings from academic studies further validate these concerns. While technical measures are being taken against cyber threats, the human element remains another crucial aspect that requires strengthening. To effectively combat cyber threats and vulnerabilities, it is imperative to enhance individuals’ awareness through education and training. In order to address the cyber security training needs of maritime professionals and students, we have developed an approach called the Maritime Cyber Security (MarCy) training programme. In this study, we evaluate all stages of the proposed programme through four conducted training sessions involving different learner groups. As a result, the MarCy programme was improved based on the findings obtained during the training sessions and the feedback from the learners. This study validates that the MarCy programme is an effective approach to meet the cyber security training needs of various groups in the maritime domain.

The rapid digitalization of maritime operations through IoT-enabled navigation systems and cyber-physical ship infrastructures increased Indonesia’s exposure to cybersecurity risks. Strengthening cybersecurity competence within Maritime Education and Training (MET) institutions was therefore essential to ensure navigational safety, operational reliability, and national maritime resilience. This study assessed cybersecurity readiness, training standards, instructor competence, and facility availability in Indonesian MET institutions with reference to international frameworks, including IMO MSC-FAL.1/Circ.3, BIMCO guidelines, and ISO/IEC 27001. A descriptive quantitative approach was employed using structured questionnaires to evaluate organizational readiness, curriculum implementation, instructor qualifications, and supporting facilities. Data were analyzed using percentage distributions to identify institutional conditions and gaps relative to global requirements. The results indicated that cybersecurity training in most MET institutions remained largely theoretical, with limited practical exposure. Nearly 80% of respondents reported having no prior cybersecurity training, while hands-on facilities such as cyber laboratories and simulation environments were largely unavailable. Instructor expertise and standardized cybersecurity modules aligned with international guidelines were insufficient to adequately address threats to AIS, GPS, ECDIS, and integrated IT–OT systems. These findings revealed a significant gap between existing training practices and the competencies required for secure digital maritime operations. The study concluded that standardized, practice-oriented cybersecurity training was urgently needed, supported by instructor upskilling, curriculum alignment with international standards, and the development of shared training facilities. Strengthening these aspects was critical to improving national maritime cyber readiness and supporting resilient intelligent maritime systems.

The global maritime industry is continuing the rapid digitization of systems and dependency on advancing technology, in a trend akin to other industrial domains. One of the main issues that this integration has brought is an increased vulnerability to a growing number of cyber threats. While several security measures are being implemented to prevent or respond to cyber attacks, the human element is still one of the main weaknesses. Many of today’s cyber attacks take advantage of human personnel’s lack of awareness, which makes cyber security awareness and training activities of critical importance. Unfortunately, current research is still limited in its offerings for cyber security training specific to maritime personnel. Moreover, such training programmes for the professionals should be developed role-based in accordance with the suggestions of many credited maritime organizations. For this reason, we developed a modular cyber security training programme for the maritime domain called Maritime Cyber Security (MarCy) by implementing Critical Events Model (CEM). Then, we evaluated the MarCy programme by utilizing the Delphi technique with the participation of 19 experts from academia and industry. In this study, we offer cyber security training for seafarers and office employees in shipping companies. We proposed eleven elective modules to improve the knowledge, skills, and attitude of learners against cyber risks. The MarCy programme can be implemented by universities, shipping companies, training institutes, and governmental organizations for maritime cyber security training purposes.

The aim of the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, the ‘Ocean Decade’ (2021–2030) is to trigger the maritime education, training and ocean knowledge revolution needed to promote sustainable maritime economies. Achieving sustainable maritime growth requires identifying critical ocean priorities and promoting training, research capabilities and knowledge that will unlock the potential of science, education and innovation. The maritime industry is vast, complex and everchanging, and requires innovative, collaborative and solutions-oriented maritime education and training (MET). The need for engagement and communication between the various stakeholders and institutions, and the promotion of integrated and collaborative MET approaches, research and innovative activities for sustainable MET can never be overemphasised. South Africa is a country that has a vast coastline, stretching more than 3 900 kilometres, with access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, providing abundant opportunities for maritime activities. According to the Human Resource Development Council (HRDC) Annual Report 2020/2021 (HRDC 2023), it is crucial, now more than ever, for South Africa to promote the cutting-edge MET needed to develop the economy and ensure much higher rates of employment from all key sectors, including the maritime industries. A collaboration paradigm in which several training and research institutions collaborate in an ecosystem for the mutual benefit of all members and stakeholders is needed for growing a sustainable maritime economy.

This research examined the multiple effects of integrating green education into Maritime Education and Training (MET) curricula. As the maritime sector faces the complexities of environmental sustainability and technological progress in the era of Industry 4.0, fostering a new generation of environmentally conscious professionals becomes essential. This study used a qualitative approach to thoroughly assess the benefits and potential challenges and barriers of incorporating green education in MET. By reviewing scholarly publications and empirical studies, the paper presented an integrated approach that promotes the sustainability of the maritime environment and advances the maritime sector, while addressing pedagogical, institutional, and practical challenges. The findings provided valuable insights for educators, policymakers, and industry stakeholders to enhance the effectiveness of green education frameworks in MET.

Security research and training is attracting a lot of investment and interest from governments and the private sector. Most efforts have focused on physical security, while cyber security or digital security has been given less importance. With recent high-profile attacks it has become clear that training in cyber security is needed. Serious Games have the capability to be effective tools for public engagement and behavioural change and role play games, are already used by security professionals. Thus cyber security seems especially well-suited to Serious Games. This paper investigates whether games can be effective cyber security training tools. The study is conducted by means of a structured literature review supplemented with a general web search.While there are early positive indications there is not yet enough evidence to draw any definite conclusions. There is a clear gap in target audience with almost all products and studies targeting the general public and very little attention given to IT professionals and managers. The products and studies also mostly work over a short period, while it is known that short-term interventions are not particularly effective at affecting behavioural change.

Maritime education and training (MET) is well-structured and internationally developed by the member states of IMO. Model courses, such as IMO Model Course 7.01, were developed for specific competencies and levels. With the gradual introduction of MASS, specific competencies should be added to support MASS operation and irrelevant competencies dropped. At the same time, MET should support the Society 5.0 concept to address social issues. This paper conducted a literature review on maritime education, MASS and Society 5.0. The interlink between these three concepts are use of the latest technologies, such as the Internet of Things, clouds, automation, artificial intelligence, and drone technology, to eliminate current issues and support future operations, learning the basics of future technologies, and learning to learn. IMO Model Course 7.03 should be dropped, and IMO Model Course 7.01 should be improved by adding the relevant future competencies that support MASS.

Worldwide, mariners use a variety of English as an International Language known as Maritime English regardless of the first language spoken by the crew or port in which they enter. English knowledge and ability is therefore critical to a mariner's livelihood at sea and is also mandated by the International Maritime Organization. The ability to understand and be understood is paramount to safety at sea. This study investigated which accents of English a subset of Chinese mariners found easy or difficult to understand. The data from 39 Chinese mariners who listened to 8 Standard Marine Communications phrases was analyzed. The phrases were spoken in English by native speakers of Japanese, Russian, Chinese, and English. The participants provided verbatim responses followed by their assessment of the speakers' intelligibility and accent. Results indicated that participant position on board the vessel had a statistically significant effect on the intelligibility rating of the phrase heard and the overall understandability assessed of the speaker's accent. Moreover, participants reported that the phrases were deck commands. For deck officers who participated in the study, the phrases were easy to understand, for engineers, they were more difficult. These findings suggest that within the field of Maritime English, further specification of English training is warranted and necessary to provide all mariners with authentic language relevant to their jobs. Initial Maritime English instruction at Maritime Education and Training (MET) institutions must include reading, writing, listening, and speaking which includes the spectrum of scenarios which all cadets may find themselves. Follow-on English classes for mariners beyond the academies or maritime universities must necessarily be situated in the context of the mariner and be flexible enough to adjust to the needs of the mariners. Finally, assessment of the mariner's Maritime English language abilities must also strive to test authentic use of the language as indicated by the position.