MONETARY POLICY EFFECTS ON FINANCIAL RISK PREMIA*

I. INTRODUCTION The consumption-based capital asset pricing model (CCAPM) has become the dominant paradigm in asset pricing theory because of its intuitive characterization of asset risk. That is, unlike expectations-based asset pricing theories (e.g. the present value model of stock prices) which inherently assume risk neutrality, the CCAPM is predicated upon risk-averse agents attempting to achieve a smooth consumption profile through the trading of assets. From this perspective, the risk of an asset is captured by the covariance of the asset's return with agents' marginal utility of consumption, or, more broadly, agents' intertemporal marginal rate of substitution of wealth. With this characterization, the CCAPM extends the results of the standard CAPM, i.e. the risk of an asset is reflected in the covariance of the asset's return with the market portfolio, to a general equilibrium setting. However, this intuitively appealing theory has not found much empirical support. Perhaps the most famous demonstration of inconsistency between the theory and data was Rajnish Mehra and Edward Prescott's [1985] analysis of the equity premium, i.e. the difference between the average return on equity and that on government bonds. Using calibration methods rather than a formal statistical approach, they showed that a standard CCAPM severely underpredicts the size of the risk premium on equity. The important implication of this finding is that the basic CCAPM incorrectly models the covariance structure between the return on equity and asset holders' intertemporal marginal rate of substitution. Economists' response to this empirical rejection has been to either identify new sources of risk (e.g., that implied by a particular monetary environment as in Labadie [1989]) or define alternative preferences toward risk (e.g., the use of non-expected utility theory as presented in Weil [1989] and Epstein and Zin [1989]). The potential for this research was illustrated recently by George Constantinides's [1990] resolution of the equity premium puzzle in a model that included habit formation in consumption. By relaxing the standard CCAPM's assumption of time-separable preferences, Constantinides demonstrated that a relatively smooth consumption profile and large risk premium on equity are consistent with equilibrium in a complete markets, rational-expectations framework.(1) I use this insight to study another risk premium puzzle; specifically the behavior of the nominal term premium. The existence of a nominal term premium puzzle was demonstrated in papers by Backus, Gregory, and Zin [1989] and Salyer [1990] in which the term structure implications within a Lucas [1982] type cash-in-advance (CIA) economy were studied. While some equilibrium characteristics of this model were consistent with the data, both papers demonstrated that the model predicts the wrong sign of the term premium: the theory implies the term premium should be negative while, based on quarterly data for yields of three- and six-month U.S. Treasury Bills over the period 1959.1-1989.4, the observed term premium is positive. Similar to the equity premium puzzle as posed by Mehra and Prescott [1985], the prediction of a negative average term premium signals a critical discrepancy between the risk associated with nominal bonds as perceived by market participants and as captured by the models. Moreover, this term premium puzzle is in some sense a stronger rejection of the underlying asset pricing model than that embodied by the equity premium puzzle. To see this, recall that within the consumption-based asset pricing model, the sign of the risk premium on any asset depends on the sign of the covariance between the marginal utility of consumption and that asset's return. Applying this reasoning to the case of the equity premium suggests that, while the discrepancy in size between the observed equity premium and that generated within the model is troubling, the model's prediction of a positive equity premium implies that the basic payout structure of equity within the model is consistent with that in the data (e. …

We present a pricing kernel that summarizes well the main features of the dynamics of interest rates and risk in postwar U.S. data and use it to uncover how the pricing kernel has moved with the short rate in this data. Our findings imply that standard monetary models miss an essential link between the central bank instrument and the economic activity that monetary policy is intended to affect, and thus we call for a new approach to monetary policy analysis. We sketch a new approach using an economic model based on our pricing kernel. The model incorporates the key relationships between policy and risk movements in an unconventional way: the central bank's policy changes are viewed as primarily intended to compensate for exogenous business cycle fluctuations in risk that threaten to push inflation off target. This model, while an improvement on standard models, is considered just a starting point for their revision. It leads to critical questions that researchers need to answer as they continue to revise their approach to monetary policy analysis. Copyright © 2009 by the National Bureau of Economic Research.

Equity risk premiums are a central component of every risk and return model in finance and are a key input into estimating costs of equity and capital in both corporate finance and valuation. Given their importance, it is surprising how haphazard the estimation of equity risk premiums remains in practice. We begin this paper by looking at the economic determinants of equity risk premiums, including investor risk aversion, information uncertainty and perceptions of macroeconomic risk. In the standard approach to estimating equity risk premiums, historical returns are used, with the difference in annual returns on stocks versus bonds over a long time period comprising the expected risk premium. We note the limitations of this approach, even in markets like the United States, which have long periods of historical data available, and its complete failure in emerging markets, where the historical data tends to be limited and volatile. We look at two other approaches to estimating equity risk premiums - the survey approach, where investors and managers ar asked to assess the risk premium and the implied approach, where a forward-looking estimate of the premium is estimated using either current equity prices or risk premiums in non-equity markets. We also look at the relationship between the equity risk premium and risk premiums in the bond market (default spreads) and in real estate (cap rates) and how that relationship can be mined to generated expected equity risk premiums. We close the paper by examining why different approaches yield different values for the equity risk premium, and how to choose the “right” number to use in analysis. (In an addendum, we also look at equity risk premiums during the market crisis, starting on September 12, 2008 through December 31, 2008, and then track the shift the changes through September 30, 2009.)

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the effect of monetary policy on bank risk in the banking system in some MENA countries. It explores how some economic and credit indicators affect the level of risk in the banking sector. It combines many factors that could affect banks’ risk appetite such as macroeconomic conditions, banks’ credit size and lending growth. The authors use nonperforming loans as a proxy for banking sector risks. At first, the authors have analyzed the linear relationship between monetary policy and credit risk. As mentioned above, nonlinearity is expected in the underlying relationship, and, thus, they have investigated the nonlinear relationship to deeply analyse the relationship using the dynamic panel threshold model, as stimulated by Kremeret al.(2013). Threshold models have gained a great importance in economics and finance for modelling nonlinear behaviour. Threshold models are useful in showing the turning points in the behaviour of financial and economic indicators. This technique has been applied in this study to study the effect of monetary policy on credit risk.Design/methodology/approachThis paper is divided into the following sections: Section 2 which previews the recent literature; Section 3 which includes some stylized facts about the relationship between credit risk and monetary policy; Section 4 which deals with the model and methodology; Section 5 which handles the data sources and discusses the results, and finally Section 6 which is the conclusion. The paper adopts dynamic panel threshold model of Kremeret al.(2013).FindingsThe results show that the relationship between monetary policy and credit risk is positive and significant to a certain threshold, 6.3. If the lending interest rate is higher than 6.3, this increases the credit risk in the banking sector, because increasing the lending interest rate imposes huge burdens on the borrowers, and, therefore, the bad loans and nonperforming loans become more likely. Thus, the MENA countries need to decrease the lending interest rate to be less than 6.3 to reduce the effect of monetary policy on credit risk. Further, these results are qualitatively robust regarding the inclusion of additional control variables, using alternative threshold variables and further endogeneity checks of the credit risk, such as Risk premium and the squared term of the lending interest rate. The results of taking the risk premium and the squared term of the lending interest rate as a threshold served the analysis and confirmed the positive relationship between monetary policy and credit risk above a certain threshold. As for the risk premium, the relationship below the threshold was negative and significant. Other related research points might be a good avenue for the future research such as applying this approach to micro data of banks from different MENA countries. Also, more sophisticated approaches like time-varying panel approach to assess the relationship over the time can be applied.Originality/valueThe importance of this paper lies in the fact that it does not only study the effect of time, but it also focuses on the panel data about some economic and credit indicators in the MENA region for the first time. This is because central banks in the MENA region have common characteristics and congruous level of economic growth. Therefore, to study how the monetary policy affects those countries’ credit risks in their lending policies, this requires careful analysis of how the central banks in this region might behave to control default risks.

We use a novel pricing model to filter times series of diffusive volatility and jump intensity from S&P 500 index options. These two measures capture the ex-ante risk assessed by investors. We find that both components of risk vary substantially over time, are quite persistent, and correlate with each other and with the stock index. Using a simple general equilibrium model with a representative investor, we translate the filtered measures of ex-ante risk into an ex-ante risk premium. We find that the average premium that compensates the investor for the risks implicit in option prices, 10.1 percent, is about twice the premium required to compensate the same investor for the realized volatility, 5.8 percent. Moreover, the ex-ante equity premium that we uncover is highly volatile, with values between 2 and 32 percent. The component of the premium that corresponds to the jump risk varies between 0 and 12 percent.

This paper examines panel data from 127 prefecture-level cities between 2015 and 2023 to investigate the relationship between resident leverage ratios and the effectiveness of monetary policy. The study finds that as resident leverage ratios increase, the effectiveness of monetary policy regulation is diminished. By setting different explanatory and response variables, the article demonstrates that an increase in resident leverage ratios diminishes the effects of quantitative monetary policy and price-based monetary policy. Furthermore, the paper reveals that resident leverage ratios lead to regional heterogeneity in the effectiveness of monetary policy, indicating that in areas with lower resident leverage ratios, the effectiveness of monetary policy is reduced.

In this paper, we examine the effects of Czech monetary policy on the economy within the vector auto regression (VAR), structural VAR, Bayesian VAR with sign restrictions, and factor-augmented VAR, frameworks. We document a well-functioning transmission mechanism similar to the euro area countries, especially in terms of persistence of monetary policy shocks. Subject to various sensitivity tests, we find that a contractionary monetary policy shock has a negative effect on the degree of economic activity and the price level, both with a peak response after one year or so. Regarding prices at the sectoral level, tradables adjust faster than non-tradables, which is in line with microeconomic evidence on price stickiness. There is no price puzzle, as our data come from a single monetary policy regime. There is a rationale in using the real-time output gap instead of current GDP growth, as using the former results in much more precise estimates. The results indicate a rather persistent appreciation of the domestic currency after a monetary tightening, with a gradual depreciation afterwards.

This paper develops a model of the term structures of nominal and real interest rates driven by state variables representing the short-term real interest rate, expected inflation, inflation’s central tendency, and four volatility factors that follow GARCH processes. We derive analytical solutions for nominal bond yields, yields on inflation-indexed bonds that have an indexation lag, and the term structure of expected inflation. Unlike prior studies, the model’s parameters are estimated using data on inflation swap rates, as well as nominal yields and survey forecasts of inflation. The volatility state variables fully determine bonds’ time varying risk premia and allow for stochastic volatility and correlation between bond yields, yet they have small effects on the cross section of nominal yields. Allowing for time-varying volatility is particularly important for real interest rate and expected inflation processes, but long-horizon real and inflation risk premia are relatively stable.

Survey-Based Daily Estimates of Inflation Expectations and Risk Premia in the Euro Area

Stochastic inflation and the equity premium

Introduction. The Colombian economy continued to make progress in the adjustment process required to correct macroeconomic imbalances and control the inflationary pressure that had accumulated during the first half of 2023 from the various supply shocks and rapid expansion of demand during 2021 and 2022, which exceeded the economy’s potential growth. The ongoing economic adjustment has been made possible by the moderation of domestic demand growth and the gradual unwinding of the supply shocks that raised production costs. Domestic demand began to slow down in the last few months of 2022 and contracted -0.2% in the first quarter of this year due to slower growth in household consumption and a fall in gross capital formation. Lower international prices for raw materials, the gradual normalization of supply chains, and the appreciation of the exchange rate, in turn, have contributed to dissipate supply shocks. This has been reflected in a decrease in annual producer price inflation from a level of 19.2% at the end of 2022 to 4.7% in June 2023.1 The sluggishness of domestic demand has been reflected in a progressive slowdown in economic activity. Thus, the GDP registered an annual growth of 3.0% in the first quarter of 2023, a rate equivalent to one third of the average annual growth noted during the first three quarters of 2022 (9.1%). According to the economic monitoring indicator (EMI) prepared by DANE, this loss of strength continued in April and May as variations in this indicator of -0.8% and 0.6%, respectively, were registered compared to the same months in 2022. These results were lower than those seen in March (1.4%) in the seasonally and calendar-adjusted EMI series. This suggests that GDP growth will continue to decline in the second quarter and is consistent with the technical staff’s forecast that GDP growth will be slightly below 1.0% for 2023. In spite of the ongoing economic slowdown, the labor market continues to show strength as can be deduced from the continuous decline in the unemployment rate in the national aggregate up to the moving quarter ended in May (10.4%). This is its lowest value since the beginning of the covid-19 pandemic.2 The slowdown in economic activity was, in part, expected to result from the restrictive monetary policy adopted by Banco de la República to control inflationary pressure. A less expansionary fiscal policy than in 2022 may also be contributing to the lower economic activity based on the forecasts presented in the 2023 Medium-Term Fiscal Framework (MTPF-23). Added to this was a slowdown in foreign demand that was relevant for the country due to the lower growth of our trading partners in an international context of high monetary policy interest rates, inflation rates that exceeded their targets, and high uncertainty generated by the prolongation of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. The Board of Directors of Banco de la República (BDBR) has been reiterating the need to proceed with this adjustment process in its various communications in order to achieve a gradual return of inflation to the 3.0% target, correct macroeconomic imbalances, and ensure the sustainability of economic growth in the long term. The constitutional responsibility that falls on Banco de la República, which was emphasized in the last Report to Congress, requires maintaining low and stable inflation in line with economic policy in general so as to support sustainable economic growth and a bankable foreign balance. Monetary policy decisions have been adopted with the support of the solid institutional and technical basis that supports the inflation targeting regime based on the experience accumulated over more than two decades by the Central Bank. The specific motives that the BDBR has had for undertaking a monetary tightening process and the strongest ones since Banco de la República adopted the inflation targeting strategy have been complex and diverse in nature. Inflationary pressure initially came from foreign and domestic supply shocks that pushed the costs and prices of food and other consumer products up. Added to this was pressure from the exchange rate. These shocks led to an increase in inflation expectations, and this triggered a process of price indexation which was exacerbated by the excess demand that emerged in 2022. The monetary policy response sought to reduce excess demand, contain the rise in expectations, and limit the effects of price indexing by increasing interest rates. All of this creates the right conditions to allow inflation to begin to decline as the supply shocks subside and thereby alleviate cost pressure. This is a process that is being accomplished albeit with some delay, but which, given the time that the monetary policy has been in place, has already begun to produce results as shown by the recent decline in the inflation rate and the downward revision of expectations for it at different periods. In accordance with the constitutional mandate to ensure coordination of monetary policy with the general economic policy in addition to mitigating inflationary pressure, the monetary adjustment has been fulfilling the purpose of correcting macroeconomic imbalances that jeopardize the stability of the Colombian economy. With respect to this, there is no doubt that the 7.3% GDP growth in 2022 was outstanding since it was more than double the global growth (3.5%) and far exceeded the expansion of Latin America and the Caribbean (3.9%) based on IMF figures. Such high economic strength brings important gains in well-being, particularly when it reduces unemployment rates as has been the case in Colombia. However, this growth is unsustainable because it is based on a fiscal situation that is largely in deficit and a worrying increase in household indebtedness. This generated an excess of aggregate demand that not only put upward pressure on inflation and expectations for it but also expanded the current account deficit of the balance of payments to historically high levels for several years. The current account deficit went from an already high level of 5.6% of the GDP in 2021 to one of 6.2% of the GDP in 2022 and was one of the highest seen in Colombia. The increase in the foreign imbalance in 2022 occurred in a year in which international crude oil, coal, and coffee prices remained at favorable levels. This contributed to the positive performance of exports. Nevertheless, in order to cover supply shortages, the economy significantly increased its demand for imports thus preventing a reduction in the foreign imbalance. As a result, the Colombian economy resorted to greater foreign indebtedness either as portfolio investment inflows or as direct indebtedness. All this shows how vulnerable the economy is when it maintains a level of spending that significantly exceeds its income. The restrictive monetary policy, together with the increase in the tax burden, has been inducing a progressive adjustment of these imbalances. The slowdown in domestic demand that began in the fourth quarter of 2022 was accompanied by a moderation in household consumption that had grown 3.0% in the first quarter of 2023 compared to a 9.5% increase in 2022. The latter has been reflected in a slowdown in consumer credit which went from growing at a close to 23% rate per annum at the end of the third quarter of the previous year to just under 7.0% per annum in mid-June 2023. If such a rapid expansion of consumer credit had continued, it could have generated an unsustainable situation in terms of households’ creditworthiness. Likewise, gross capital formation, which performed outstandingly well in 2022, began to show adjustments in its main components. The main source of this correction has been investment in machinery and equipment which, in the first quarter of the year, showed declines in both quarterly and annual terms, mainly in the transportation equipment sector. Along with the progress in correcting the macroeconomic imbalances, total inflation broke off the upward trend it had maintained until March 2023. Indeed, after reaching a level of 13.1% at the end of the previous year, total inflation remained stable at around 13.3% during the first three months of 2023, then began to declineas of April and reached 12.1% in June. Food was the item that contributed most to this change in trend since its annual variation went from 27.8% last December to 14.3% in June. This variation has been offset to some extent by the increase in inflation of regulated products due to successive increases in gasoline prices. Core inflation (excluding food and regulated products), in turn, continues to show rigidity as it stood at 10.5% in June and thus reflected price indexation processes. The services sub-basket has been particularly affected by the indexing which has been compounded by labor cost pressures, rising food prices that have put upward pressure on eating out and the high demand for entertainment services. This behavior should gradually diminish as the effects of monetary policy are eventually passed through to the economy, and the downward trend in inflation is reflected in a downward revision in the public’s expectations of price changes. This is in line with the technical staff’s forecasts and the market’s expectations that anticipate declining inflation over the next two years. 1 This corresponds to the annual change in the domestic supply PPI. 2 At the close of this Report, data was released from the General Integrated Household Survey for June in which the unemployment rate remained stable in its seasonally adjusted measurement of the national aggregate for the quarterly moving average (10.3%) although there was a reduction in the June data. Boxes Box 1 - Recent Changes in the Savings-Investment Balance and its Financing Box 2 - Economic Effects of Indexation and its Prevalence in Colombia Box 3 - Resilience of the Colombian Financial System: Analysis Based on the Recent Period of Banking Stress in

In this paper we construct model-free and model-based indicators for the inflation risk premium in the US and the euro area. We study the impact of market liquidity, surprises from inflation data releases, inflation volatility and deflation fears on the inflation risk premium. For our analysis, we construct a special dataset with a broad range of indicators. The dataset is carefully constructed to ensure that at every point in time the series are aligned with the information set available to traders. Furthermore, we adopt a Bayesian variable selection procedure to deal with the strong multicollinearity in the variables that potentially can explain the movements in the inflation risk premium. We find that the inflation risk premium turned negative, on both sides of the Atlantic, during the post-Lehman period. This confirms the recent finding by Camp- bell et al. (2016) that nominal bonds are no longer "inflation bet" but have turned into "deflation hedges". We also find, and contrary to common beliefs, that indicators of inflation uncertainty alone cannot explain the movements in the inflation risk premium in the post-Lehman period. The decline in the inflation risk premium seems mostly related to increased deflation fears and the belief that inflation will stay far away from the monetary policy target rather than declining inflation uncertainty. This in turn would suggest that central banks should not be complacent with low or even negative inflation risk premia.

Does the exchange rate pass-through into prices change when inflation targeting is adopted? The Peruvian case study between 1994 and 2007

We model and estimate equity premium in a general equilibrium setting. It is done by reframing the Merton's model (1974) in the context of general equilibrium models such as Ahn and Thompson (1988) and Bates (1991). Our approach is novel in its attempt to derive equity premium by evaluating the equity returns dynamics in equilibrium and to thereby estimate non‐risk convexity premium for equity as well as its risk premium. While risk premium is generally due to systematic risk, convexity premium is due to the option‐like feature of equity, and exists under returns discontinuity and risk neutrality. We model equity premium such that the convexity premium pays for the liquidity and information costs of equity. We calibrate our equity premium model and report that the convexity premium counts for about one third of our predicted equity premium. We find relevance for our non‐risk convexity premium in relation to the premium puzzle and anomalies in the stock market.

This study uses quantitative analysis in the age of digital transformation to ascertain how Indonesia's monetary policy's stability and effectiveness are affected by digital economic characteristics. The Simultaneous Regression approach (also known as structural regression) with two simultaneous equations—monetary stability and monetary policy effectiveness—is the data analysis technique used in this study. Monetary stability (SM), the volume of digital transactions (VTD), the number of digital service users (PLD), financial technology adaptation (ATF), monetary policy effectiveness (EKM), e-commerce growth (PEC), and digital financial inclusion (IKD) are the variables considered in this study. The findings indicate that the variables VTD, PLD, ATF, and EKM have a 62.3% influence on the SM variable, with other variables outside the estimation accounting for the remaining 37.7% of SM. The estimation results show that the Effectiveness of Monetary Policy (EKM) can be explained by the Digital Financial Inclusion (IKD) and Monetary Stability (SM) variables by 11.7% and 88.3%, respectively. Aside from the estimations in the model, additional factors also affect the Effectiveness of Monetary Policy (EKM).