Monograph Series 1

Rainfall‐induced landslide is one of the major natural disasters in the Western Ghats of India. Kerala state in southern India received unprecedented heavy rainfall from July to August 2018. The rainfall received was higher than the average for the past 100 years. The present study discusses the investigation of vertical cut failure at Kaithakunda, located in Malappuram district, Kerala, India. It was due to the series of medium rainfall followed by a short period of extremely heavy rainfall. The heavy rainfall triggered the slope failure, which led to the damage of the building and the death of three residents of the building. The index and engineering properties of the soil were evaluated from the laboratory tests. The tests revealed that the soil was silty sand (SM) with low permeability. Tests on the mineral composition and microstructure fabric nature of the soil revealed that the soil was formed due to the weathering action of the parent charnockite rock. The finite element analysis of the slope was carried out using PLAXIS 3D. The analysis was carried out in two stages. The original slope before the vertical cut was modelled as the first stage. The vertical cut was modelled in the second stage to study the actual site condition before failure. The failure occurs due to the increase in pore water pressure in the soil, thereby reducing the matric suction and shear strength of the soil. The vulnerability of the building located near the cut slope is studied using the Support Vector Method to investigate the effect of material on the failure. The results showed the importance of the material properties in the increase of building resistance to 20%.

The ant genus Vollenhovia Mayr, 1865 (Myrmicinae, Crematogastrini) mostly occurs in the Australasian and Oriental regions. We revised its diversity in India and Sri Lanka based on qualitative and quantitative morphology, recognizing eleven taxa, including a new species which is described herewith: V. escherichi Forel, 1911, V. gastropunctata Bharti & Kumar, 2013, V. karimalaensis Dhadwal et al., 2023, V. keralensis Kripakaran & Sadasivan, 2022, V. mawrapensis Dhadwal et al., 2023, V. oblonga laevithorax Emery, 1889, V. penetrans (Smith, 1857), V. pfeifferi Bharti et al., 2023, V. taylori Rilta et al., 2023, V. terayamai Rilta et al., 2023, and V. yasmeenae sp. nov. The subspecies status of V. oblonga laevithorax and its relationship with V. penetrans, whose type series does not contain workers, still requires to be assessed in the context of a broader revision including the whole Oriental region. The known distribution of the genus in the Indian subcontinent appears to be fragmentary, still requiring extensive sampling efforts. Four species are from the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot in the southern Indian state of Kerala, one is endemic to the biogeographically related Sri Lanka, three are known from Eastern India near the border with Bangladesh, two are reported from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and one is restricted to the Himachal Pradesh in northern India. A comprehensive key of the known Vollenhovia species from India and Sri Lanka is provided.

About 200 isolates of the bacterial blight pathogen Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae were obtained from infected rice (Oryza sativa L.) leaf samples from the Palghat District of Kerala State in southern India during January and February, 1998, when there was a severe epidemic of bacterial blight in the farmers' fields. One hundred and forty of these isolates were assayed for pathogenicity on rice cv. IR24 (no R gene), IRBB21 (Xa21), and NH56 (Xa4+xa5+xa13+Xa21) at their maximum tillering stage by the standard clip-inoculation technique (1) at the Regional Agricultural Research Station (Kerala Agricultural University), Pattambi. In two separate experiments, all the isolates were found to be pathogenic to IR24, producing lesions greater than 10 cm in length. None of the isolates induced susceptible symptoms on cv. NH56 and the average lesion length was less than 2 cm. Twenty of the 140 isolates, however, showed virulence to IRBB21 (seeds supplied by S. R. McCouch, Cornell University, and by P. Ronald, University of California-Davis) and induced lesions of 10.0 to 18.0 cm. We report here the presence of Indian races of X. oryzae pv. oryzae that are virulent to IRBB21 (Xa21), contradicting an earlier report of avirulence (2). These results suggest that the deployment of Xa21 alone will not be a sound strategy for the management of bacterial blight in southern India.

The term "Biodiversity Hotspot" refers to a geographical region with a high level of diversity and a large number of endemic species that have been overexploited over time. India has four biodiversity hotspots: the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot, the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, the Sundaland biodiversity hotspot, and the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot. Human activities have significantly impacted the biodiversity of these hotspot regions. Therefore, it is important to conserve these areas to ensure the survival of various species and the future well-being of both organisms and humans. The Western Ghats is considered the most diverse hotspot in India and is renowned for its unique and rich biodiversity. Among the invertebrates in the Western Ghats, land snails are particularly important, but they have been rarely studied or exploited. There are 270 species of snails in the Western Ghats, with 204 of them being endemic to the region. Additionally, out of the 330 species of butterflies in the area, 37 are endemic. The Western Ghats also supports a high level of endemism in reptiles and amphibians. However, the level of endemism is lower in mammals compared to other groups of organisms. Several endemic species in the Western Ghats, such as the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), Malabar civet (Viverra civettina), Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius), and Red slender loris (Loris tardigradus), are facing significant threats and are classified as "vulnerable" or "endangered." Today, the life-sustaining and biodiversity-rich ecosystems of the Western Ghats are under threat due to habitat pressures, leading it to be declared as one of the world's hottest hotspots of biodiversity.

We describe three new small-bodied, cryptic species of south AsianCnemaspisbelonging to themysoriensisandgoaensisclades from the Mysore Plateau and the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot in Karnataka, peninsular India; and provide a key to members of each clade, besides providing the first ND2 sequence data forC. ranganaensis.Cnemaspis tigrissp. nov.from Kaiwara in Karnataka is a member of themysoriensisclade and can be morphologically distinguished from all six described members of the clade in a number of meristic characters and subtle differences in colouration, beside ≥ 12.1–23.4 % uncorrected pairwise ND2 sequence divergence.Cnemaspis sakleshpurensissp. nov.from Sakleshpur andC. vijayaesp. nov.from Coorg, both in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, are members of thegoaensisclade and are easily diagnosed from all three described members of the clade in meristic characters beside 5.2–14.8 % divergence from described members of the clade and 14.6 % from each other in uncorrected pairwise ND2 sequence divergence. The discovery of these new species from two different clades and biogeographic regions is not surprising, given the steep rise in the number of species ofCnemaspisknown from peninsular India. Comprehensive geographic sampling in conjunction with molecular and morphological data is essential to understand the true diversity and distributional ranges of species within this ancient clade of gekkonid lizards.

This paper examines the notion that Kerala state in southern India remains a (comparative) bastion of female equality as shown by normal sex ratios at birth and by child survival while fertility declines. Studies have shown that much of India seems to be moving towards increased male bias during fertility and mortality declines and socioeconomic development. This is reflected in the increased masculinity of sex ratios at birth resurgent female infanticide and persistent excess female child mortality. While most studies point to Tamil Nadu to illustrate this trend they suggest that Kerala remains an exception. In Kerala data suggest that fertility decline has been accompanied by the rise of female disadvantage in infant/child mortality. Furthermore there are two factors associated with worsening female demographic disadvantage in the rest of India--the rise of dowry customs and the marginalization of women from paid employment--that are now seen in Kerala. In general the paper has drawn attention to recent gender gaps in demographic indicators and to declining womens status in Kerala state.

Context Carinotetraodon travancoricus is a threatened ornamental aquarium fish endemic to Western Ghats (WG) biodiversity hotspot of India and indiscriminate collection of this species resulted in a severe population decline. Aims To understand the impacts of wild collection of C. travancoricus for aquarium-fish trade, information on their population status and reproductive characteristics is required. Methods Specimens for the present study were collected from the Chalakudy River of WG and growth, mortality, exploitation and reproductive characteristics of C. travancoricus were investigated. Key results The natural mortality of the species was higher than the fishing mortality. The peak spawning period of the species was from May to September. Length at first maturity (L50) for males and females was estimated to be 18.4 and 18.1 mm respectively. Conclusions The stock of C. travancoricus in the Chalakudy River may be in near full exploitation under current harvesting strategy. The lower value of length of first capture than size at first maturity indicated that C. travancoricus is likely to be captured before it matures and breeds, subsequently contributing to declining recruitment. Implications A combination of different strategies (closed fishing seasons, mesh-size regulation and no-fishing areas) will improve sustainable management and conservation of species.

BackgroundMany LMICs have implemented Publicly Funded Health Insurance (PFHI) programmes to improve access and financial protection. The national PFHI scheme implemented in India for a decade has been recently modified and expanded to cover free hospital care for 500 million persons. Since increase in annual cover amount is one of the main design modifications in the new programme, the relevant policy question is whether such design change can improve financial protection for hospital care. An evaluation of state-specific PFHI programmes with vertical cover larger than RSBY can help answer this question.Three states in Southern India - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have been pioneers in implementing PFHI with a large insurance cover.MethodsThe current study was meant to evaluate the PFHI in above three states in improving utilisation of hospital services and financial protection against expenses of hospitalization. Two cross-sections from National Sample Survey’s health rounds, the 60th round done in 2004 and the 71st round done in 2014 were analysed. Instrumental Variable method was applied to address endogeneity or the selection problem in insurance.ResultsEnrollment under PFHI was not associated with increase in utilisation of hospital care in the three states. Private hospitals dominated the empanelment of facilities under PFHI as well as utilisation. Out of Pocket Expenditure and incidence of Catastrophic Health Expenditure did not decrease with enrollment under PFHI in the three states. The size of Out of Pocket Expenditure was significantly greater for utilisation in private sector, irrespective of insurance enrollment.ConclusionPFHI in the three states used substantially larger vertical cover than national scheme in 2014. The three states are known for their good governance. Yet, the PFHI programmes in all three states failed in fulfilling their fundamental purpose. Increasing vertical cover of PFHI and using either ‘Trusts’ or Insurance-companies as purchasers may not give desired results in absence of adequate regulation. The study raises doubts regarding effectiveness of contracting under PFHIs to influence provider-behavior in the Indian context. Further research is required to find solutions for addressing gaps that contribute to poor financial outcomes for patients under PFHI.

Particularly in countries with an agrarian economy, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought hardships faced by farmers into sharp focus. One of the most badly hit countries was India. This study aims to bring to light the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the livelihoods of farmers in three farming systems (coffee farming, Kole wetland paddy farming, and homestead farming) in the southern Indian state of Kerala. We collected the data using telephone interviews and studied the impacts (economic, social, institutional) of the pandemic on the selected farming systems, the responses of farmers (short and long term) to these impacts, and the ability of farmers to secure their livelihoods (by analyzing resilience capacities and transforming structures and processes of the farming systems). The methodological framework used was developed based on the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and the Resilience Framework. We found significant impacts on the three studied farming systems due to COVID-19. As the impacts, responses, and ability to secure livelihoods varied across the three farming systems, we concluded that there is not a single solution that could be prescribed for all farming systems and that each land use system must be treated individually.

Complete mitogenome of Lepidopygopsis typus, an evolutionarily-distinct, endangered cyprinid fish from the Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot: Phylogenetic relationships and implications for conservation

Understanding of biodiversity on a local scale is extremely important for effective conservation measures, especially in biodiversity hotpsots hosting diverse endemic flora and fauna and subject to strong anthropogenic influences. Little is known about patterns of local biodiversity and the processes generating it in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot: the patterns of genetic diversity and biogeographic affinities are poorly known for most of the species from this region. We studied the genetic diversity and population structuring of an endemic frog Indirana cf beddomii, from 12 localities of Western Ghats using 15 polymorphic microsatellite loci. The genetic diversity as measured by mean expected heterozygosity (HE = 0.83) or allelic richness (Ar = 10.41) was high and similar in all localities. Significant genetic differentiation (mean FST = 0.075) with a strong pattern of isolation by distance (IBD) across the localities was observed. Clearest genetic discontinuities in the data corresponded to topographic gaps suggesting that apart from IBD, genetic structuring in this species is strongly influenced by habitat matrix. In general, the results provide novel insight into factors that may impact the genetic diversity and population structuring of endemic amphibians in this biodiversity hotspot.

Tropical agroforestry systems such as shade coffee are recognised as important refuges for biodiversity in human‐modified landscapes. In these systems, many conservation initiatives aiming to sustain biodiversity against the trend of intensifying agroforestry management focus on promoting biodiverse tree overstories but engage less with conservation opportunities and challenges associated with agroforest understories. In coffee agroforests with native shade trees, weeding of natural regeneration constitutes lost conservation opportunities. We explore the potential for reducing such losses by rescuing native tree seeds and naturally regenerating seedlings from coffee agroforests and developing local native plant nurseries, which are a critical bottleneck for restoration. For this, we draw on floristic surveys using 42 0.3 ha plots in eight polyculture shade coffee agroforests and collaborative pilot rescue, nursery development and restoration initiatives in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot, India. Ninety restoration‐relevant native tree species (inferred from species distributions, traits and practitioner knowledge) constituted 37% of all trees recorded in coffee agroforests. The species list included 30 conservation‐priority species (endemic to the Western Ghats and/or classified as threatened or near‐threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature), most of which were not stocked in existing public nurseries. Experiences from pilot rescue efforts, which collected over 18,000 seeds and seedlings spanning 56 restoration‐relevant species in 12 months, underscore the importance of efficient rescue planning focussed on mapping target trees and monitoring phenology, fostering partnerships with agroforest landowners to enhance rescue opportunities and developing nursery infrastructure to house rescued plants and support local restoration efforts. Synthesis and applications. Shade coffee agroforests can contribute to conservation beyond their boundaries as sources of native plants that can help expand and diversify local nurseries and scale up restoration, while alleviating the need to exploit remnant natural forests as plant sources for nurseries and restoration. Harnessing this opportunity requires the development of strategies and partnerships for integrating native plant sourcing, nursery and restoration efforts, backed by policies and initiatives that promote landscape‐level benefits of agroforestry for biodiversity and conservation.

Cucurbits are of tremendous economic importance and are cultivated throughout the world from tropical to sub-temperate zones. China, Turkey, India and Iran are important cucurbit growing countries. Pumpkin may have been domesticated in Mexico and northern South America. Then it migrated to the Caribbean islands and from there reached Florida, the native Americans developed a distinct landrace called Seminole pumpkin. More diversifi cation on pumpkin has taken place in Asia and Africa. Bitter gourd is a very important crop of India, the Phillipines, Malaysia, China, Australia, Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and the Caribbean. Momordica charantia was domesticated in eastern India or southern China. Luffa cylindrica (smooth gourd) contains wild populations distributed from southern Central Asia to north-eastern Australia and the South Pacifi c. The domestic variety is cultivated in Asia, Africa and tropical America. Luffa acutangula is mostly grown in South-eastern Asia and other tropical countries (Table 2-1). In India, this diversity is concentrated in the IndoGangetic plains, north-eastern regions, north-western Himalayas, the Western and Eastern Ghats and sporadically in the tribal dominant belts of Central India. More diversity occurs in Cucurbita spp. in the north-east as also for ash gourd, bottle gourd while for Luffa, it is more concentrated in the eastern peninsular tract. In case of Cucumis melo and round gourd, it is more confi ned to north-western and Indo-Gangetic plains. In pointed gourd, diversity is concentrated more in eastern part of the Indo-Gangetic plains particularly in West Bengal and adjoining Bihar along eastern Uttar Pradesh. Coccinia cordifolia (growing wild throughout India, raw fruits used as vegetables), Cucumis sativus (distributed throughout India, in the Himalayas as well), Lagenaria siceraria (African origin but domesticated throughout India, tender fruits used as vegetables), Luffa cylindrica (indigenous to India whereas acutangula found in western, Central and southern India and is regarded as a wild form of cultivated species-tender fruits used as vegetables), L. acutangula var. amara (occurs in peninsular India and is a wild relative of cultivated spongegourd), L. echinata (western Himalayas, Central India Gangetic plains) and L. graveolans (considered as wild progenitor of L. hermaphrodita in Bihar and Sikkim) are potential species. In addition, Momordica, M. balsamina occurs in semi-dry northwestern plains, northern parts of Eastern and Western Ghats, M. dioica and M. cochinchinensis occur as wild/semi-wild in the Gangetic plains. Trichosanthes has 21 species occurring in India and the major zones of species concentration are (a) along the Malabar coast in the Western Ghats, (b) low and medium elevation zones in the Eastern Ghats and the north-eastern19 Table 2-1 Origin and geographical distribution of cultivated species of minor cucurbits of regional or local importance*.

ABSTRACTIn this study, we investigated the precipitation structure (PS) and convective intensity (CI) of precipitation features (PFs) using the multiple sensors onboard on TRMM and GPM for active and break spells (ACT and BRK‐Ss) during Indian summer monsoon seasons (1999‐2021). Microwave‐based observations showed that during ACT‐Ss, a higher frequency of PFs is observed over the Himalayan Foothills and northern western Ghats (WGs). Eastern Himalaya Foothills (EHFs), southern India, the Indian Equatorial Ocean, and the Arabian Sea (AS) have a higher frequency of PFs during BRK‐Ss. The major differences in PS during ACT and BRK‐Ss are observed over WGs and southern‐western Himalayan Foothills (S‐WHFs). Infrared‐based measurements showed that the Bay of Bengal (BOB) and S‐WHFs have the deepest Cumulonimbus clouds (minimum brightness temperature) during both ACT and BRK‐Ss, but the numbers over BOB are twice as high compared with S‐WHFs. S‐WHFs have the strongest CI (40 dBZ radar reflectivity has the highest altitude) and precipitation tops (20 dBZ radar reflectivity has the highest altitude) during ACT‐Ss. WGs and the Indo‐Gangetic Plain (IGP) consist of intense and larger PFs during the BRK‐Ss. PFs with the highest horizontal extension, and, which are contributing to higher surface rainfall observed over north‐central India and BOB during ACT Ss, but during BRK‐Ss, they shifted to EHFs and the Burma‐Myanmar coast. Lightning activity is higher at S‐WHFs and EHFs during ACT‐Ss but shifted at the eastern longitudes of EHFs and southern India during BRK‐Ss. Relative humidity (RH) profiles are used to investigate the moist and dry atmospheric conditions during ACT and BRK‐Ss. Megha‐Tropiques‐based sounders showed a higher fraction of RH vertical profiles above mid‐troposphere (above 500 hPa) over BOB and S‐WHFs during ACT‐Ss. WGs and IGP have a higher fraction of RH vertical profiles above the mid‐troposphere during BRK‐Ss. The balance between RH and vertical velocity is critical in deciding the PS and CI over the selected areas during ACT and BRK‐Ss. An updraft with higher RH is observed over BOB, IGP, Central‐India, and S‐WHF during ACT‐Ss. The opposite characteristics are observed over WGs, and a higher RH with a higher updraft is observed during BRK‐Ss. The RH‐vertical velocity joint histogram shows a broad spectrum width during ACT‐Ss compared with BRK‐Ss. It shows that even the lower RH can be lifted at higher altitudes due to updraft during the ACT‐Ss compared with BRK‐Ss. A separate analysis of TRMM and GPM shows that in the last decade, there has been an increase in the deep convective systems during the BRK‐Ss, especially over the WGs and Southern India, the Tropical Ocean, and must be investigated in the future.

Seventy one fish species belonging to 27 families and 50 genera were collected from various sampling sites spread along the upstream and downstream parts of the Chalakudy river, in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot in Kerala, South India. Cyprinids were the most dominant group represented by 24 species belonging to 13 genera, followed by the catfishes of the family Bagridae (7 species from 2 genera) and loaches belonging to the family Balitoridae (5 species from 5 genera). Of the 71 species, 4 belong to the ‘critically endangered’ (CR) and 16 to the ‘endangered’ (EN) category. 3 of the critically endangered species are strictly endemic to the Chalakudy river system. We also collected 5 exotic species several of them categorized as potential pest. Fish species richness (FSR) showed a direct relationship with increasing stream order with maximum values observed in the downstream/low elevation regions. Considerable differences were observed in the FSR between different microhabitats with maximum values observed in bed rock and pool riffle and the lowest in regimes followed by step pools. Diversity and species richness decreased with increasing altitude and higher diversity and species richness were observed in sampling sites located between 0–200 m above sea level. A definite temporal partitioning was also observed with regard to FSR with higher richness during the day time and the lowest observed at dawn. Indiscriminate collection of endemic and threatened ornamental fish species for export, exploitation of endangered food fishes by forest-dwelling communities and local fisher folk, pollution, loss of riparian cover, damming and exotic species threaten the rich ichthyofaunal diversity of Chalakudy River. An urgent need exists for studying the life history traits and demography of the most important endemic and threatened fishes, as lack of information on these aspects have significantly affected conservation efforts. The implementation of strong management strategies like fixing total allowable catch (TAC), and the use of quotas are needed to reduce the overall collection pressure with regard to the trade in native ornamental species from the river.