Moral Reasoning and Personal Behavior: A Meta-Analytical Review

Contents: Preface. J.R. Rest, Background: Theory and Research. S.P. McNeel, College Teaching and Student Moral Development. L.J. Duckett, M.B. Ryden, Education for Ethical Nursing Practice. F-Y. Chang, School Teachers' Moral Reasoning. N.A. Sprinthall, Counseling and Social Role Taking: Promoting Moral and Ego Development. L.A. Ponemon, D.R.L. Gabhart, Ethical Reasoning Research in the Accounting and Auditing Professions. M.J. Bebeau, Influencing the Moral Dimensions of Dental Practice. D.J. Self, D.C. Baldwin, Jr., Moral Reasoning in Medicine. D.J. Self, M. Olivarez, D.C. Baldwin, Jr., Moral Reasoning in Veterinary Medicine. B.J.L. Bredemeier, D.L.L. Shields, Applied Ethics and Moral Reasoning in Sport. T. Westbrook, Tracking the Moral Development of Journalists: A Look at Them and Their Work. S. Thoma, Moral Judgments and Moral Action. J.R. Rest, D. Narvaez, Summary: What's Possible?

<i>The Moral Habitat</i>

In the silent corridors of childhood, where maternal presence is expected to provide warmth, guidance, and emotional grounding, the absence of a mother casts a long and often painful shadow. The Shadow of Absence: Ethical Considerations of Growing Up Without a Mother explores the ethical, psychological, and social ramifications of maternal absence. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, presents a thought-provoking analysis of how individuals raised without a mother navigate their personal development, ethical foundations, and emotional resilience. This book unearths the philosophical questions surrounding maternal absence—does morality develop differently in children without a maternal figure? How does society perceive and accommodate those who grow up without a mother? What ethical responsibilities does the community have in addressing the void left by maternal absence? With a deeply humanized and analytical approach, this work does not merely diagnose the struggles of those affected but also seeks pathways for ethical and social reintegration. The discussion extends beyond individual psychology, delving into cultural perspectives, moral philosophy, and policy considerations. Published in New York, USA, in 2023 by The United Nations and The Education Training Centre, this book is an essential read for scholars, ethicists, psychologists, and anyone who seeks a deeper understanding of the intersection between ethics and personal identity formation in the absence of maternal influence. The impetus for this book arises from the growing need to understand the ethical implications of growing up without a mother. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, examines the moral, psychological, and philosophical ramifications of maternal absence in a rapidly evolving world where traditional family structures continue to shift. The book, published in New York, USA, in 2023, seeks to address how individuals construct their identities and ethical foundations in the absence of a maternal figure. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, defines maternal absence beyond physical separation, including emotional detachment and societal neglect. Core concepts include the role of maternal ethics, identity construction, and the moral development of children raised without maternal influence. The book examines theories in developmental psychology, ethics, and cultural philosophy to create a comprehensive framework for understanding this phenomenon. The increasing prevalence of non-traditional family structures has led to a deeper inquiry into the ethical consequences of growing up without a mother. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, highlights empirical studies and case analyses demonstrating the impact of maternal absence on cognitive, emotional, and moral development. The book also explores the long-term societal effects, including shifts in ethical perspectives and social policy. This book follows an interdisciplinary approach, combining psychological analysis, ethical philosophy, and sociological perspectives. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, employs comparative studies to assess differences in moral reasoning and social adaptation between those with and without maternal influence. The book also integrates cross-cultural comparisons to determine how maternal absence is understood and mitigated in various societies. Key indicators include the psychological effects of maternal absence, shifts in moral behavior, and variations in ethical reasoning. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, examines case studies, statistical analyses, and philosophical arguments to explore the extent to which maternal absence influences ethical decision-making and emotional well-being. This book identifies variables such as parental roles, emotional security, ethical decision-making, and social adaptation. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, discusses how these factors interact and shape individual identities in the absence of maternal guidance. Cultural norms, economic conditions, societal support structures, and personal resilience serve as key determinants in how individuals cope with maternal absence. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, investigates the role of extended family, educational institutions, and community resources in shaping moral and ethical development. Through an ethical and philosophical lens, Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, proposes strategies to mitigate the challenges of growing up without a mother. These include fostering inclusive social policies, developing mentorship programs, and creating community support systems to bridge the emotional and moral gaps left by maternal absence. While there are supportive interventions, numerous barriers remain, including societal stigma, economic hardship, and limited access to emotional support. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, discusses how ethical frameworks can guide policy-making to reduce these obstacles. The book concludes by emphasizing the necessity of ethical and social considerations in addressing maternal absence. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, argues that while the absence of a mother presents unique challenges, society has an ethical obligation to create frameworks that support those affected, fostering resilience and moral development.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development explores the roles of cognition and emotion but focuses primarily on cognition. Contemporary post‐formal theories lead to the conclusion that skills resulting from cognitive‐affective integration facilitate consistency between moral judgement and moral behaviour. Rest's four‐component model of moral development delineates these skills specifically. The components, moral motivation, moral sensitivity, moral reasoning and moral character, operate as multidimensional processes that facilitate moral development and subsequently promote moral behaviour. The relationships between these components have been relatively unexplored, thereby missing the opportunity to unpack the processes underlying moral growth and development. In this study, moral motivation (spirituality), moral sensitivity (post‐formal skills) and moral reasoning are operationalized to examine the mediational effects of moral sensitivity of medical students. In the complex moral environment of medical students opportunities arise to question values and develop cognitive‐affective skills, among them spirituality and post‐formal thinking which are linked to increases in post‐conventional moral reasoning. The models tested indicate that moral sensitivity mediates the relationship between moral motivation and moral reasoning.

This chapter presents an overview of the different types of Kantian duties, including the distinction between perfect and imperfect duties. It begins with a fundamental distinction between what Kant called juridical duties (or duties of right) and ethical duties (or duties of virtue). The easiest way to explain the difference between juridical duties and ethical duties is in terms of whether they are subject to external enforcement by the state. Perfect duties are duties to do or refrain from doing specific actions, while imperfect duties are duties to adopt ends or take on commitments. The chapter then looks at the two duties that Kant puts into the category of imperfect duties: a duty to improve ourselves and a duty to promote the happiness of others.

Perfect duties are those required by moral individuals, whereas imperfect duties, although not required, are expected of moral individuals. Previous research suggests it takes fewer perfect than imperfect duty violations to override an existing impression of a person as moral. Presently, we examine moral attributions about immoral people performing moral behaviors. Across four studies, we assessed whether initial impressions of a person as immoral are reversible, and if so, what is the mechanism of these changes in impressions of people with immoral traits? In order to do so, we measured how many moral behaviors are required to reverse them. We also assessed the mediating role of affect and intent in these moral attributions, and assessed perceptions of how easy it is for actors to perform moral behaviors. The results suggest that imperfect duty behaviors revised previous negative impressions more easily than perfect duty behaviors. In addition, intention, but not affect, partially mediated the relationship between moral violation type and moral attributions. Further implications are discussed.

Moral identity - defined as "a self-conception organized around a set of moral traits" - is strongly linked to moral behavior. Recent theoretical approaches showed that moral identity - the same as social identity - may be influenced both by individual differences and situational factors. In the context of the current global pandemic, several social and moral identities emerged and will continue to develop as the situation unfolds, with consequences on peoples' moral decisions and actions. Children and adolescents may be especially vulnerable to negative consequences, who may be affected by numerous situational factors such as the emerging of polarisation concerning following rules, and it is yet unclear how this affects children and adolescents' mental health and morality, both in the short and long term. Others' behaviors and opinions may hold a strong effect on adolescents' moral development, and this influence may be especially salient in the case of significant others (i.e., parents, family, peers) who have the role of ethic models in adolescents' life. Therefore, we propose a theoretical protocol for a longitudinal study, exploring the long-term effects of others' perceived moral identity on adolescents' moral identity development, hypothesizing that the perception of the moral identity of ethical models is a predictor for change over time in adolescents' moral self-identity. Longitudinal designs are widely used in literature to explore the role of both individual differences and situational factors on specific outcomes, for this reason, we propose a latent growth model, exploring the individual change in adolescents' moral identity, in three different time points, measured every year, in the (post)pandemic context.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to develop a new whistleblowing scale considering the conventional and Islamic perspectives in combating corruption. Whistleblowing has received great attention because it helps the corruption prevention process by revealing bad practices, improving transparency and ensuring accountability. However, not many scholars have focused on the concept of whistleblowing in the Islamic context.Design/methodology/approachThe study uses a theoretical inquiry design, delving into the literature to thoroughly examine whistleblowing likelihood, Kohlberg’s theory and Maqasid Shariah. Through qualitative content analysis, relevant concepts are scrutinized and synthesized. The integration of Kohlberg’s theory and Maqasid Shariah aims to offer a comprehensive framework for comprehending whistleblowing likelihood, integrating perspectives from both Western and Islamic traditions.FindingsThis study has conceptualized the integration of the six stages of Kohlberg and Maqasid Shariah to understand whistleblowing likelihood. The study offers a scale to explain whistleblowing likelihood based on the two theories.Research limitations/implicationsThe correlation between Kohlberg and Maqasid Shariah reveals a nuanced relationship between individual moral evolution and Islamic ethical imperatives, in the context of whistleblowing likelihood. As individuals progress through Kohlberg’s stages, aligning with Maqasid Shariah’s emphasis on societal well-being, their inclination to blow the whistle evolves from early considerations of fear and conformity to a commitment to universal ethical principles and justice.Practical implicationsThe new scale integrating Kohlberg and Maqasid Shariah aids ethical climates in organizations by assessing employees’ moral development and promoting ethical leadership through tailored training. Aligned with Islamic values, the scale becomes a tool for fostering ethical behavior and organizational culture, emphasizing justice and commitment to higher ethical objectives. Managers must delicately balance justice and community harmony when implementing whistleblowing initiatives to ensure a positive impact on both ethical principles and organizational cohesion.Social implicationsBy integrating the six stages of moral development proposed by Kohlberg, the new scale plays a role in promoting transparency and accountability for sustainable development. Furthermore, its alignment with Maqasid Shariah contributes to addressing corruption and advocating for social justice, making the scale a catalyst for societal well-being that respects cultural and religious values. Ultimately, the scale supports a socially responsible approach, reinforcing ethical behavior and contributing to the broader global agenda for sustainable and just societies.Originality/valueThe new scale integrating Kohlberg and Maqasid Shariah offers an innovative and interdisciplinary approach to assessing whistleblowing likelihood. This fusion provides a nuanced understanding of individuals’ ethical reasoning, aligning universal moral principles with Islamic ethics. The scale not only broadens the conceptual framework for evaluating ethical decision-making but also respects cultural diversity, making it inclusive and applicable across diverse global contexts.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to shed light on and introduce the ethics of earnings management (EM) to researchers and students in the academic community in light of Kohlberg’s theory. Design/methodology/approach The paper contextualises and analyses the relevant literature to provide insights around the key concepts of the issue of ethics of EM. Therefore, theoretical approach has been adopted by reviewing the literature using a descriptive method. The study suggests relevance of the theory of moral development and reasoning by Kohlberg (1969) as an approach in the process of exploring the background and the reasons behind ethics of managers regarding EM. This theory helps to explain how individuals demonstrate and justify a sense of right or wrong. Thus, the paper is a literature review concluded with a proposed conceptual framework. Findings The paper provides conceptual insights about the ethics of EM, and it proposes a link between manager’s ethics regarding the phenomenon of EM and the framework of moral reasoning theory by Kohlberg (1969). Originality/value The importance and implications of Kohlberg’s theory, in terms of EM, resides within the fact that the theory is concerned with questions about how one ought to act – being as it acknowledges the well-known ethical theories. The work of Kohlberg can be classified as a descriptive analysis to the extent that it attempts to describe individuals’ moral development. This integration of normative and descriptive ethics, in turn, enables the theory to be used to explore managers’ moral reasoning in a more helpful way.

The absence of a mother shapes not only an individual's emotional landscape but also their ethical and existential outlook. This book presents an in-depth exploration of the philosophical and social dimensions of growing up without maternal guidance. Through the lens of existential ethics, Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, examines how individuals construct meaning, navigate moral challenges, and define their place in a society that often presumes the necessity of maternal influence. Grounded in existentialist thought and social ethics, this book blends philosophy with real-life narratives to investigate how the absence of a mother influences personal autonomy, moral responsibility, and the search for belonging. It engages with questions of self-determination, ethical dilemmas, and societal obligations to individuals who must forge their own moral compass in the face of maternal absence. An essential read for philosophers, psychologists, educators, and policymakers, this work seeks to expand the conversation on ethics, resilience, and the human condition. This book was written to address the intersection of existential philosophy and social ethics in the lives of those who grow up without a mother. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, was driven by the increasing discussions on how parental absence affects an individual’s moral and existential formation. Published in New York, USA, in 2023, this work provides a philosophical framework for understanding how individuals without maternal influence shape their moral and social identities. At its core, this book defines maternal absence not just as a physical condition but as a profound existential state that influences moral reasoning, identity formation, and social integration. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, explores key concepts such as existential autonomy, ethical self-reliance, and the societal role in moral development. The book draws from existentialist thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Albert Camus to frame the ethical implications of growing up motherless. Societies have long emphasized the maternal figure as a cornerstone of ethical and emotional development. This book questions whether individuals who grow up without a mother are at a moral disadvantage or whether they develop a unique ethical framework born out of necessity. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, explores how the motherless experience shapes moral choices, social belonging, and existential resilience. The book identifies principles such as moral self-construction, ethical adaptability, and communal ethics as crucial factors in understanding the moral lives of those without maternal figures. Indicators examined include levels of moral reasoning, social responsibility, and psychological resilience in motherless individuals. This study is structured around critical variables that shape ethical identity, including: • Autonomy and Moral Independence: How individuals develop a personal moral code in the absence of maternal influence. • Social Influence and Support Structures: The role of extended family, mentors, and societal institutions in moral education. • Philosophical Inquiry and Ethical Development: How existential questioning informs personal ethics and decision-making. The absence of a mother does not determine ethical failure or success but rather introduces unique determinant factors. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, highlights key influences such as social environment, economic stability, cultural expectations, and access to mentorship as shaping forces in moral and existential development. To address the ethical and existential challenges faced by motherless individuals, the book proposes strategic interventions. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, outlines educational reforms, mentorship initiatives, and community-based support programs aimed at fostering moral and existential resilience. The book advocates for policies that acknowledge and support individuals who must construct their ethical frameworks without maternal guidance. Growing up motherless presents unique challenges, from the struggle for emotional stability to societal expectations that often place moral weight on maternal presence. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, identifies support systems such as philosophical education, therapy, and alternative mentorship as key to ethical and existential development, while also discussing barriers like economic hardship, cultural biases, and institutional neglect. The absence of a mother is neither a definitive moral deficit nor an existential failure; rather, it is a condition that reshapes the individual’s ethical and social landscape. Prof. Dr. Yoesoep Edhie Rachmad, Ph.D., DBA, argues that through existential and social ethics, individuals can construct meaningful, responsible, and morally autonomous lives. This book calls for a broader societal recognition of the moral complexity of maternal absence and the need for greater institutional and philosophical engagement with this issue.

One of the reasons often cited for the renewed interest in Aristotelian virtue theory is its alleged sensitivity to the particular case. In addition to rules and procedures is attention to the variety of individual cases, and a reminder of the shortfalls of misplaced rigour. Often quoted are the passages from the Nicomachean Ethics in which Aristotle warns that we must seek only so much precision as is appropriate for the subject matter (EN1094M1-22; 1103b34-1104al0).2 Repeated, too, is the well-known phrase of the Ethics, that judgment rests in perception (EN1109b22). The spirit of these remarks, in essence, that practical wisdom is not scien tific understanding (EN1142a24),3 is contrasted with modern views which stress the sufficiency of algorithms for fully determining right action and deliberation based on deduction from rules. However, the contrast between modern and ancient approaches seems less stark when we turn to recent Kantian ethics. For here there has been a recognizable shift away from interpreting Kant as proposing some generalizable view of deliberation as either algorithmic, prescribing a cor rect act for each situation, or as involving rules that prescribe uniform con duct.4 In their place is an emphasis on the notion of acting on principles responsive to the salient features of complex situations. The principles of a subject (maxims) must of course be lawful if they are to be morally accep table. They are in accordance with law (gesetzm?ssig) when they can be universalized or acted on by others. This is the point at which the Cate gorical Imperative enters?namely in checking our initial proposals. But in stressing the importance of acting on principles formulated from the bottom up, the interpretation also stresses the fact that capacities for perceiving moral salience figure crucially in a Kantian account. The role of these capacities is perhaps most perspicuous in the case of imperfect duties, or wide duties of end or virtue. Whereas perfect duties specify determinate actions the performance of which is obligatory, im perfect duties leave wide discretion for the fulfilling of obligatory ends? imperfect duties underdetermine specific action. Ends such as others' happiness or my own moral perfection are held by Kant to be obligatory in the sense that finite rational agents such as ourselves require these policies in

Particularly in elementary school, folklore is a key cultural and teaching instrument that helps children's moral and character development. This study sought (i) to investigate how folk elements support the moral development of primary school children in Bangladesh, (ii) to investigate the variations in the use of folk elements between rural and urban primary schools and their impact on students' ethical values and behavior and (iii) to suggest efficient strategies for including folk elements into the main education curriculum and classroom to improve students's moral and cultural development.Using qualitative approaches, the study included unstructured conversations with guardians, instructors, and students across seven main schools situated in both rural and urban parts of Rajshahi and Rangpur divisions, as well as classroom observations. The findings revealed that rural schools actively include folklore components—including traditional crafts, proverbs, and storytelling—into their curricula, therefore cultivating moral values, emotional ties with families, and student creativity. On the other hand, urban schools showed in the elementary level their use of folk elements with limited use of folklore in the upper level (classes 3,4, and 5), mostly focusing on academic achievements and technological integration,resultingin a lack of moral development among learners compared to rural pupils. Structural changes, enhanced library resources, folklore-based projects, and guardian awareness campaigns to protect the cultural legacy and inculcate moral values among students constitute recommendations. This study exposes the latent potential of folklore education to produce a balanced and culturally sensitive generation for the next generation.

In this chapter, the authors review the Muzafer Sherif's seminal Robbers Cave study and the theory that it grew. They discuss subsequent research that has built on Sherif's findings, and, turn to an extension of his work, incorporating research from multiple disciplines. The authors argue that a moral education offers a promising conflict resolution strategy by way of curtailing conflict before its initiation. Realistic conflict theory has also been tested in more real world settings. The influential common in-group identity model is heavily indebted to realistic conflict theory, building from and expanding upon Sherif's ideas. The authors suggest that social scientists should turn their attention to appropriate moral socialization and education in order to effect more enduring conflict prevention. They review relevant literature on moral reasoning and development as it relates to conflict. In addition to encouraging critical thinking and reasoning, educators should aim to build affective skills and positive moral emotionality.

This study addressed the polarization among theoretical perspectives in moral psychology regarding the relative significance of parents and peers in children's developing moral maturity. The sample was composed of 60 target children from late childhood and midadolescence, 60 parents, and 60 friends who participated in parent/child and friend/child dyadic discussions of a series of moral conflicts. The quality of parents' and friends' verbal interactions, ego functioning, and level of moral reasoning in these discussions was used to predict the rate of children's moral reasoning development over a 4-year longitudinal interval. Results revealed that interactions with both parents and peers were predictive of children's development but that these two types of relationships influence development in rather different ways. Implications of the findings for the understanding of these socialization agents' roles in moral development are discussed.

This study examines the integration of religious values into Indonesian language learning and its pedagogical impacts on students’ linguistic and moral development. Employing a qualitative research methodology, data were collected through semi-structured interviews with language teachers, classroom observations, and document analysis. The findings reveal that various pedagogical approaches, including storytelling, thematic lessons, collaborative activities, and contextual learning, effectively embed religious values within the language curriculum. These strategies not only enhance students' engagement and motivation but also promote critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and social skills. The study highlights that integrating religious values into language lessons fosters a positive learning atmosphere, reduces anxiety, and encourages active participation, thereby improving language proficiency. Furthermore, the integration contributes significantly to students' moral and ethical development, helping them internalize values such as honesty, empathy, and social responsibility. Despite the benefits, challenges such as potential bias and the need for teacher training were identified. The study recommends developing comprehensive guidelines and frameworks in collaboration with educational experts, religious scholars, and community leaders to ensure inclusivity and effectiveness. By addressing these challenges and fostering an inclusive environment, the integration of religious values can enhance Indonesian language learning, contributing to the formation of well-rounded individuals proficient in language and grounded in ethical principles. This research provides valuable insights for educators, policymakers, and scholars, advocating for the incorporation of religious values in language education to promote holistic student development.