Multidisciplinary Approach to Prevent Limb Amputation in Diabetic Patients

Background Despite advances in limb-salvage surgery, lower extremity amputation is still commonly required as an end result of the progression of arterial occlusive disease or failed arterial reconstruction. Furthermore, the increasing prevalence of diabetes has led to the appearance of more patients with foot complications leading to eventual lower extremity amputation. Objective To investigate the predictors and risk factors associated with wound complications after lower limb amputations in diabetic patients. Methods This is a prospective study, in which we follow up diabetic patients who went for lower limb amputation (AKA or BKA) and record the incidence of post operative wound complications. The study included 30 diabetic patients undergoing lower limb amputation in Ain Shams University hospitals, with postoperative follow up for 24 weeks, and the outcome measured is the incidence of post operative complication in relation to preoperative risk factors and predictors. Results Regarding the comparison between AKA and BKA it was found that patients who had BKA had higher rates of superficial SSI which were statistically significant (P < 0.05). While patients who had AKA had higher rates of pneumonia and mortality but not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Wound disruption, pulmonary embolism and MI were higher in patients who had BKA but was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Regarding assessing predictors and risk factors for assessing post operative complications it was found that female gender, smoking and obesity (BMI >30) was statistically significant in assessing the risk factors (P value <0.05). Also regarding other predictors and risk factors of postoperative complication after the end of the study duration it was found that lower HGb levels (Anemia), Hct, ESR and CRP are considered predicators (P-value < 0.05). Other factors such as preoperative sepsis, emergency status and presence of infection were strongly related to post operative complication P-value 0.003 each (P-value < 0.05). Conclusion Surgical site infections (SSIs) following lower extremity amputations (LEAs) are a major cause of patient morbidity and mortality. The objectives of this study were to investigate the incidence of SSI and other wound complications after LEA in diabetic patients and to assess risk factors associated with SSI. This study found that below-the-knee amputation, smoking, obesity, emergency status, anemia, lower hematocrit and preoperative sepsis to be associated with SSIs.

Introduction: Diabetes accounts for more than 50% of lower extremity amputation, of which 85% of lower limb amputation in diabetic patients are preceded by foot ulcers. The increasing prevalence of ischaemic ulcers has made ischaemia probably the most important cause of Diabetic Foot Ulcers (DFUs) today. Modalities for assessment of vasculopathy include clinical examination of pulses, Ankle Brachial Pressure Index (ABI), Toe Brachial Pressure Index (TBI), Transcutaneous partial pressure of Oxygen (TCpO2), Duplex imaging, Magnetic Resonance (MR) and Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA). Aim: This study was aimed at evaluation of ABI and TBI in assessment of vasculopathy in DFUs and their association with the various surgical outcomes. Materials and Methods: This study was done as a cross-sectional study on 100 patients with diabetic foot, from December 2016 to April 2018, with prospective follow-up till the outcome of “ulcer healed”, “minor/major amputation” with healing of the amputation stump, was achieved. The multimodality approach for treatment of DFU was taken. Variables like age, gender, duration of present ulcer, previous history of ulcers and interventions, comorbidities, history of smoking and duration of diabetes were recorded and assessed. The examination included examination of peripheral pulses, presence of neuropathy, measurement of ABI and TBI. Investigations included HbA1c levels, swab or pus cultures from the ulcers, objective evaluation of Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD) by Duplex Ultrasonography and CT Angiography where an intervention was contemplated. The data was entered in MS Excel spreadsheet and analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21.0. Results: The mean age was 62.55±9.21 years, with maximum patients belonging to the age group 61-70 years (38%) followed by 51-60 years age group (33%). Smoking as a risk factor was present in 59% of all the patients. A total of 53 patients underwent amputation among which 28 were smokers (52.8%). Neuropathy was present in 47.22% (n=51), with 60.87% of all patients with neuropathy undergoing amputation which was significant (p-value=0.005). When defined by ABI alone (ABI <0.9), 46.3% patients had PAD, however, using TBI <0.7 for defining PAD, incidence of PAD increased to 68.31% patients. Thus identifying 21 more patients with PAD as compared to ABI. Poor glycaemic control was significantly associated with poor outcome in the form of amputation (p<0.001). Patients who underwent major amputation had a mean ABI of 0.54±0.22, for minor amputation the mean ABI was 0.85±0.19 and for those who had healed ulcers, had a mean ABI of 0.61±0.27. The cut-off value for ABI to predict amputation was >0.51 with a sensitivity of 77.14 and a specificity of 56.1, which was not found to be significant (p-value=0.0796). The mean TBI for the diabetic feet was 0.25±0.12 for major amputation, 0.42±0.26 for minor amputation and 0.61±0.19 for ulcer healed. With a cut-off value of ≤0.3, the sensitivity and specificity for predicting amputation were 68.75 and 88.68 respectively which was found to be significant (p<0.001). Conclusion: The ABI has been found to under-report ischemia as compared to TBI in diabetic patients. TBI also correlates better with the outcome of a DFU. Thus, making TBI a part of assessment of vasculopathy in DFU patients who have not undergone toe amputations, would help in correctly identifying ischemia and early institution of possible intervention in such patients.

This study analyses 2848 primary major lower limb amputations in diabetic individuals during the period 1982-1993. The male:female sex ratio (mean 1.18) increased, while the mean age at the primary amputation was constant (70.96 years) during the period. The incidence uniformly decreased for both men and women by 0.96 per year. A subdivision of the total population into three age groups (< 50, 50-70, > 70 years), shows a 0.95 decrease per year with no significant difference between the groups. The decrease in incidence during the period 1987-1993 appeared specifically related to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (0.92), whereas the incidence of amputations in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients was constant. The overall decrease of incidence during the period (40%) does not fully meet the target specified in the St. Vincent Declaration.

The risk of amputation is a sequelae of diabetic foot ulceration, which are significantly increased in diabetic patients and caused huge morbidly and mortality. However, whether the risk amputation in diabetic patients are differing in male and female remains inconclusive. We therefore conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the sex difference for the risk of amputation in diabetic patients. We systematically searched PubMed, EmBase, and the Cochrane library to identify eligible study from their inception up to November 2020. The diagnostic value of male patients on subsequent amputation risk were assessed by using sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratio (PLR and NLR), diagnostic odds ratio (DOR), and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Twenty-two studies recruited a total of 33,686,171 diabetic patients were selected for quantitative analysis. The risk of amputation in male diabetic patients was greater than female diabetic patients (DOR: 1.38; 95%CI: 1.13–1.70; P<0.001). The sensitivity and specificity for male diabetic patients on the risk of amputation were 0.72 (95%CI: 0.72–0.73), and 0.51 (95%CI: 0.51–0.51), respectively. Moreover, the PLR and NLR of male diabetic patients for predicting amputation were 1.13 (95%CI: 1.05–1.22), and 0.82 (0.72–0.94), respectively. Furthermore, the AUC for male diabetic patients on amputation risk was 0.56 (95%CI: 0.48–0.63). This study found male diabetic patients was associated with an increased risk of amputation than female diabetic patients, and the predictive value of sex difference on amputation risk in diabetic patients was mild.

IntroductionPatients with diabetes have increased risk of lower limb revascularization and amputation due to higher risk of peripheral artery disease (PAD) and peripheral neuropathy. The additive effect of coronary artery...

Amputation of limb is essential in certain conditions; however, it may have significant impact on the patient's psychological condition. The present study investigates psychological responses of upper limb (UL) amputees versus lower limb (LL) amputees regarding prosthetic adjustment, social discomfort, depression, and body image anxiety. Traumatic major amputations of 20 upper and 38 lower extremities of 58 patients who were currently using prosthesis were included. 12 of UL amputations were of dominantly used limb. Seven of the UL amputations, and nine of the LL amputations were female. The Trinity Amputation and Prosthesis Experience Scales was used for adjustment, restriction, and satisfaction. Anxiety and depression levels were assessed using Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Body image disturbance and social discomfort were assessed with Amputation Body Image Scale-Revised (ABIS-R) and Social Discomfort Score, respectively. 58 individuals with 20 UL and 38 LL amputations were included. Mean age of UL amputees was 44.76±12.26 and 49.1±14.3 years for LL amputees. Mean time of daily prosthesis use was 11.35±4.8 and 11.52±4.7h, respectively. Mean time since amputation was 35.4±14.3 and 36.05±13.6 months; length of prosthesis use time was 24.8±13.4 and 23.9±15.12 months, respectively. Social adjustment and adjustment to limitation subscales had significantly higher scores in LL amputees (p<0.001). There was statistically significant difference between mean HADS depression and anxiety scores (p<0.001). Mean total ABIS-R score indicated significantly greater body image disturbance for UL amputees (p<0.001). Well-adjusted LL prosthesis probably has better cosmetic appearance compared to that of UL prosthesis and perception of cosmetic appearance may be the key factor that leads to increased levels of body image anxiety and social discomfort. Epidemiologic and prognostic study, level III.

Background: In patients who underwent lower limb amputation (LLA), the prevalence of malnutrition and its association with clinical outcomes are unclear. Objectives: This systematic review aims to identify literature and summarise existing information on (1) the prevalence of malnutrition in the patients with LLA and (2) the association between pre-operative nutritional status and post-surgery clinical outcomes in patients who require amputation. Methods: A search was conducted in four electronic databases (Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), PubMed, CINAHL and Scopus) to identify eligible studies. The search strategy was based on keywords – amputation, malnutrition and undernutrition. Article were included regardless of the study design; and if they were written in English; included adult patients with lower limb or foot amputation; and performed pre-amputation nutrition assessments. Results: Seven articles met the eligibility criteria. Malnutrition was assessed by biochemistry and/or anthropometry – none of which are validated nutrition assessment tools. Nevertheless, abnormal biochemistry and/or anthropometry results were associated with delayed wound healing, complications and failed amputation compared to normal ranges. The association between abnormal biochemistry and/or anthropometry parameters and mortality was less consistent. Only one study used a validated nutrition screen tool and found half of the population with LLA were at risk of malnutrition, but no association was reported. Conclusions: The association between malnutrition and clinical outcomes in patients who underwent LLA remains unclear as all the eligible studies that investigated association used unvalidated nutrition assessment tools. There is an urgent need to address this knowledge gap in future research.

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) are chronic complications due to poor diabetic control. Diabetic foot ulcers can lead to lifelong disability and substantially diminish the quality of life. The aim of this study was to carry out a thorough evaluation of diabetic foot ulcer management, compare current scenario of DFUs care with the International guidelines and to identify the extended roles of clinical pharmacist to improve the conditions of diabetic patient with foot ulcers. It is a retrospective qualitative study carried out in two tertiary care hospitals of Tamil Nadu state. The patients were selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria admitted in the hospitals with diabetic foot ulcers. The patient’s sociodemographic and clinical characteristics tools from the patient medication records (PMR) were collected and taken into considerations for the study. The study revealed that diabetic foot ulcer was more prevalent among male patients with type 2 diabetes since 11 to 25 yrs belongs to the age group between 51-60 years. It was found that 60.5% of the patients having at least one co-morbid condition and 90.6% of patients possess one or more risk factors to develop diabetic foot ulcers. Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) test were done only by 54.7% of the patients, which showed that it was not insisted as an important identification tool for diabetic foot ulcer. The PMR revealed numerous antibiotics switch-over for the wound treatment as well. From the study it was concluded that an immediate requirement and thorough evaluation of enhanced foot care management, patient centered care and diabetic foot surveillance etc is needed for diabetic foot ulcer management. A comparative current scenario of DFUs care with the International guidelines and its adaptation and modifications according to our need is to be emphasized. Amalgamation of clinical pharmacy services with the multidisciplinary diabetic foot care team services is to be made. The clinical pharmacist’s intervention is to be put forward to improve the conditions of diabetic patient with foot ulcers to decrease the alarming incidences in Indian hospital settings. Key Words: Diabetes, diabetic foot ulcer, wounds, guidelines, clinical pharmacy intervention

Mortality after major amputation in diabetic patients with critical limb ischemia who did and did not undergo previous peripheral revascularization: Data of a cohort study of 564 consecutive diabetic patients

Background: Health disparities based on gender have been recognized as having a detrimental impact on care delivery and early identification of disease processes. Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is the third leading cause of atherosclerotic disease mortality. It is unclear what role, if any, gender plays in the diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes of PAD. Hypotheses: Females are less likely to have guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT) and more likely to have major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and major adverse lower limb events (MALE) than males. Methods: The Intermountain Health electronic database was queried for patients meeting the following criteria: ≥18-years of age, PAD diagnosis between Jan 2006 to Dec 2021, seen at least once within the 18-months following initial PAD diagnosis, and had a symptom of PAD (see table). Follow-up GDMT, based on the 2016 AHA/ACC PAD guidelines, was determined by medication and procedures. Time to outcomes of MACE (all-cause death, MI, stroke, or unstable angina hospitalization) and MALE (limb ischemia, limb revascularization, or limb amputation) were examined using Cox-proportional hazard adjusted for GDMT, age, and prior CAD. Results: A total of 7522 patients had a symptomatic PAD diagnosis, with 38% female and 62% male. Females tended to be older (70.1±13.0 vs 68.6±11.7), more likely to be obese (25% v 21%), and less likely to have Afib (21% v. 24%), CAD (30% v 41%), MI (11% v 16%), renal failure (19% v 22%) but more likely to have a bleeding history (30% v 26%) (all p&lt;0.01). Females were slightly less likely to have all the GDMT and yet had similar rates of referrals to specialists but higher rates to primary care providers (Table). After adjustment, females were less likely to have MACE (HR=0.94; 95% CI: 0.88, 0.99) and MALE (HR=0.85; 95% CI: 0.80, 0.92). Conclusion: Females had lower rates of MALE, driven by lower limb revascularization or amputation rates, and slightly lower rates, after adjustment, for MACE. This was observed despite the high rates of GDMT for both females and males (~80% in any category), with females having slightly less GDMT.

Background and aim Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States, with peripheral arterial disease (PAD) and lower limb (LL) amputation contributing to poor cardiovascular outcomes. While previous studies have identified the link between CAD and PAD-related amputations, data on short-term in-hospital outcomes remain limited. This study aimed to compare in-hospital mortality and complications between CAD patients undergoing LL amputation and those without it. Methods We conducted a retrospective cohort study using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) from 2016 to 2021, identifying CAD patients with and without LL amputation via International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (ICD-10) codes. Propensity score matching (PSM) was performed using a 1:1 nearest-neighbor algorithm to minimize selection bias, adjusting for demographics, comorbidities, and hospital characteristics. The primary outcome was in-hospital all-cause mortality, while secondary outcomes included acute heart failure, cardiogenic shock, acute kidney injury (AKI), major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events (MACCE), and healthcare resource utilization. Results A total of 31,379,939 CAD patients were identified, with 119,320 (0.4%) undergoing LL amputation. After propensity score matching (PSM), 23,261 patients were included in each group. The LL amputation cohort exhibited significantly higher in-hospital mortality (5.5% vs. 3.3%, p<0.001), cardiac arrest (2.3% vs. 1.4%, p<0.001), acute kidney injury (AKI) (29.3% vs. 26.8%, p<0.001), and acute limb ischemia (5.2% vs. 0.4%, p<0.001). Conversely, CAD patients without amputation had higher rates of acute heart failure (18.3% vs. 10.7%, p<0.001), major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events (MACCE) (22.5% vs. 12.2%, p<0.001), and percutaneous coronary intervention (6.7% vs. 0.9%, p<0.001). The length of stay and total hospital charges were significantly higher in the amputation group (10 days vs. four days; $26,590 vs. $11,686, p<0.001). Conclusion Lower limb amputation in CAD patients is associated with increased in-hospital mortality, cardiac complications, and healthcare resource utilization. These findings underscore the need for early intervention strategies targeting PAD progression and comprehensive perioperative cardiovascular risk management in amputees. Future research should focus on optimizing revascularization approaches, rehabilitation programs, and tailored preventive measures to improve outcomes in this high-risk population.

Lower extremity amputation is a source of morbidity and mortality among diabetic patients. This meta-analysis aimed to identify significant laboratory data in patients with diabetic foot ulcer with high rates of lower extremity amputation. We performed a systematic literature review and meta-analysis using MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases. We extracted and evaluated 11 variables from the included studies based on amputation rates. This study used the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale to assess the quality of the studies. The search strategy identified 101 publications from which we selected 16 articles for review. We identified HbA1c, fasting blood glucose, white blood cells, C-reactive protein, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate as predictive variables of higher major amputation rate. Although further investigation of long-term and prospective studies is needed, we identified 5 variables as predisposing factors for higher major amputation in diabetic patients through meta-analysis.

To examine psychosocial adjustment in persons with lower limb amputations related to diabetes. Thirty-eight participants with diabetes-related lower limb amputations, recruited from two limb-fitting centres, completed three psychological self-report assessments: the Trinity Amputation and Prosthesis Experience Scales (TAPES); the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS); and the Amputation Body Image Scale-Revised (ABIS-R). Over 18% of participants scored above the normal range (> 8) for depression on the HADS and 18.5% scored above the normal range for anxiety. Both depression (rho = 0.75, P < 0.01) and anxiety (rho = 0.62, P < 0.01) scores were significantly associated with body image disturbance, as measured using the ABIS-R. Significant relationships were also observed between body image disturbance and three TAPES subscales measuring psychosocial adjustment [general adjustment (rho = -0.48, P < 0.01), social adjustment (rho = -0.51, P < 0.01), adjustment to limitations (rho = -0.45, P < 0.05)]. Individuals with diabetes-related amputations may be at elevated risk for psychological distress as a result of their co-morbid medical condition. Regular screening for anxiety and depression and the provision of appropriate follow-up care may therefore be advisable in this population.

To determine the Canadian age-adjusted incidence rates of lower limb amputation (LLA) by province, sex, level, and cause of amputation. Data on all hospital discharges associated with LLA from April 1, 2006, to March 31, 2012, were obtained from the Canadian Institute for Health Information's Discharge Abstract Database. National and provincial age-adjusted rates were calculated per 100 000 individuals by sex, level, and cause of LLA using the direct method of standardization. The relative risk of LLA in people with diabetes was calculated. There were a total of 44 430 LLAs performed in Canada over the study years. The number of LLAs increased from 7331 in 2006 to 7708 in 2011. Mean (SD) age was 65.7 (16.6) years, and 68.8% were males. Sixty-five percent of the LLA cases were due to diabetes. The average age-adjusted rate of LLA in Canada was 22.9 per 100 000 individuals. The age-adjusted rates declined over the study years. The relative risk of diabetes-related LLAs was 28.9. This study provided the first Canadian national and provincial age-adjusted incidence rates of LLA and a baseline for monitoring and evaluation in the future. Understanding the incidence of LLA is essential to managing preventive and rehabilitation services for this population. Although the age-adjusted LLA incidence rates have decreased, the number of new LLAs has increased. The increase in the number of LLAs has important implications for social and health care costs.

To assess whether diabetic patients undergo lower-extremity amputations (LEA) at an earlier age than non-diabetic patients, and whether there is a relationship between duration of diabetes mellitus and the age at which such amputations occur, we performed a retrospective analysis of data on 289 consecutive diabetic and 484 consecutive non-diabetic patients who underwent LEA for macrovascular disease. The mean age of diabetic patients who had LEA (69.1±0.6 years) was not different from that of non-diabetic patients (69.6±0.6 years, 0.4>P>0.5), with no significant differences in age distribution. Age at diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and duration of diabetes mellitus until LEA were inversely related. Patients who were diagnosed as diabetics at a young age had the longest time lag until LEA (r=0.73,P<0.0001). In addition, age at amputation was not significantly different between subgroups of patients with varying duration of diabetes. In conclusion, mean age and age distribution in diabetics and non-diabetics who underwent LEA were not different, and age at LEA was comparable for groups with varying duration of diabetes. These data on a large group of diabetic and non-diabetic patients are not compatible with the view that duration of diabetes mellitus is related to early LEA.