National, European and Human Security

One of the actual threats to the nation’s and human security is the alarming rate of illicit drug trafficking (IDT). The menace of illicit drug trafficking poses heinous threats to human lives, national development and security. Most of the Nigerian borders are porous, therefore, giving room for easy influx, movement and exit of drugs. However, the failing economy, insecurity, high rate of graduate unemployment, poverty, failure of government to provide basic necessities of life, high level of corruption and get-rich-quickly syndrome among the youths in Nigeria, constitute the various banes behind the practice of illicit drug trafficking in the state. This study interrogates the obstacles and threats posed by drug trafficking to human lives, state’s development and national security; it assesses the concerted efforts of the Nigerian government aimed at combating the menace with a plan to proffer solutions on how to checkmate the disheartening phenomenon. The study concludes that, lack of adequate intelligence gathering, insecurity, bribery and corruption, poverty, civilization and porous borders stand as a cog in the wheel to appreciable efforts at arresting the menace in the country. It also submits that there is need for sound orientation/education, strong law and good governance, adequate intelligence gathering to solve the problem in addition to the imperative role of law enforcement agencies for sustenance of a drug-free society and state.

To what extent does a nation's economic security drive its holistic security framework? The existing literature on national security highly concentrates on conventional military security, with the triviality of other dimensions of national security failing to gain adequate foreground in the academic debate. Traditionally, the economic dimension of national security was associated solely with defence spending, demonstrating the defensive orientation. Meanwhile, the economic power was just there to ensure the conventional security approach of militarization. While observing the definition of security from a broader vantage point, the intricate and complex interplay between national security and the economy can be underscored. Against this backdrop, this paper attempts to demonstrate how the perspective of national security has evolved to incorporate the economic dimension of national power and security. The objective of this paper is to unfold the ever-growing significance of economic security and portray it as a prerequisite to other forms of security, including military security. Thus, this article systematically understudies the relationship between economics and security, particularly in the case of Nepal, while positioning and forecasting Nepal's economic security and recommending actionable measures. The qualitative research approach, employing secondary data from academic books, journal articles, research reports, working papers, and newspaper articles, examines how a robust economy is crucial for sustaining and leveraging other national power elements, with military prowess no exception. Methodologically, the research study stresses the cases of advanced economies and the poorest economies globally through a nomothetic explanation to oversee how their economic growth leads to advancement in military capability and holistic national security, gaining a positive momentum through a causative portrayal. The study finds that Nepal faces significant economic insecurity due to the debt crisis, reliance on aid, imports, remittances, capital deficiency, and underdeveloped sectors. To enhance economic security and safeguard national security, Nepal should focus on managing interdependence, leveraging its geostrategic position, and prioritizing economic diplomacy and capital investment guided by effective leadership.

Humankind faces a growing spectrum of anthropogenic existential threats to human civilization and survival. This article therefore aims to develop a new framework for security policy – ‘existential security’ – that puts the survival of humanity at its core. It begins with a discussion of the definition and spectrum of ‘anthropogenic existential threats’, or those threats that have their origins in human agency and could cause, minimally, civilizational collapse, or maximally, human extinction. It argues that anthropogenic existential threats should be conceptualized as a matter of ‘security’, which follows a logic of protection from threats to the survival of some referent object. However, the existing frameworks for security policy – ‘human security’ and ‘national security’ – have serious limitations for addressing anthropogenic existential threats; application of the ‘national security’ frame could even exacerbate existential threats to humanity. Thus, the existential security frame is developed as an alternative for security policy, which takes ‘humankind’ as its referent object against anthropogenic existential threats to human civilization and survival.

Contributors..1 Introduction: Why human security matters - Dennis Altman..2 Human security: From theory to practice - Joseph A Camilleri..3 In defence of breadth: The broad approach to human security - Stephen James..4 Human security and national security: The Australian context - Joseph A Camilleri..5 Australia's global security: A model national strategy for a more secure world - Anthony Burke..6 Human security and the politics of security - Matt McDonald..7 Australia's 'new engagement' with Africa: What role for human security? - David Mickler..8 Security from below: An alternative perspective on human security - Gerhard Hoffstaedter and Chris Roche..9 The prevention of mass atrocities: From principle to Australian foreign policy - Alex J Bellamy..10 Conclusion: The political virtues of human security - Robyn Eckersley..Index

This study focuses on a comprehensive approach to National Security, encompassing the protection of a National Sovereignty, territorial integrity, and citizenry from internal and external threats.This multifaceted concept includes intelligence gathering, military defence, counterterrorism, cybersecurity, and related measures.The research addresses National Security in its broadest sense, incorporating the safeguarding of political stability, economic progress, and promotion of international interests.The research highlights the role of government institutions and agencies responsible for defence, as well as the vital functions of the intelligence community in ensuring National Security.In the rapidly evolving 21st century, where technological advancements are transforming the security landscape, countries are adapting and progressing at an unprecedented pace.Consequently, this study emphasizes the significance of software in various aspects of National Security, including Military Security (MS), Cyber Security (CS), Environmental Security (EnS), Economic Security (EcS), Border Security (BS), Intelligence Security (IS), Infrastructure Security (InfS), and Human Security (HS).The study anticipates a future where National Security will increasingly rely on the strength, reliability, and validity of software, effectively becoming a "war of software."The study provides theoretical and practical implications for future researchers and policymakers, offering valuable insights for the development of effective National Security strategies.

This article examines the legal framework for ensuring national security in Mongolia and provides an analytical assessment of its structure, governance effectiveness, and reform needs. Drawing on contemporary security studies and human security theory, the study conceptualizes national security as a multidimensional governance system encompassing individual, societal, and state security. Using doctrinal legal analysis, systems analysis, and normative evaluation, the article assesses the coherence between constitutional provisions, national security policy documents, and sectoral legislation. The findings indicate that while Mongolia’s national security legal framework is formally comprehensive, it remains functionally constrained by weak policy-law-implementation linkages, fragmented institutional responsibilities, and limited accountability mechanisms. In addition, emerging non-traditional security threats-including information insecurity, socio-economic vulnerability, and declining public trust-are insufficiently addressed within binding and enforceable legal norms. Human security principles, although present in strategic discourse, remain largely declarative rather than operationalized in law. The article argues that advancing a human-centered, adaptive, and accountable legal governance model is essential for strengthening national resilience. By focusing on Mongolia as a small state operating in a complex security environment, the study contributes to broader debates on national security governance and legal reform in transitional and developing contexts.

This study analysed the problem of armed banditry and its implications for Nigeria’s national security. Using a quantitative research design, the study utilised secondary data from the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), ACLED, and various humanitarian and security reports to achieve its desired objectives of analyzing the drivers of banditry and its impacts on national security in Nigeria. The research argued that human, economic, and state security, as well as the effectiveness of government interventions, are key to national security. Findings indicate that armed banditry is driven by a tripod of factors: socio-economic deprivation, environmental degradation, and the proliferation of ungoverned spaces, particularly in northern Nigeria. The study demonstrates that banditry has systematically eroded national stability, leading to the closure of over 11,500 schools, a 70% reduction in agricultural productivity in conflict-affected areas, and the internal displacement of more than 3.7 million persons as of late 2025. Applying Failed State and Human Security theories, the study concluded that sustainable national security requires a paradigm shift from purely kinetic responses to comprehensive non kinetic governance strategies. Recommendations include formalizing community-based security programs, reclaiming forest reserves which were being used as criminal hideouts, and implementing targeted social and economic interventions to dismantle the survivalist incentives that also drive recruitment into banditry. Until these profound steps are taken, armed banditry may continue to undermine national security in Nigeria.

This article asks whether institutions and processes for regional environmental governance can be introduced or, where they already exist, be strengthened to be more effective along three key dimensions: managing environmental stressors, coordinating the adaptation and mitigation strategies required at various scales of social organization, and establishing better early warning, response and recovery systems. These dimensions are analysed through an examination of the challenges facing the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region that affect all of the region of South Asia. In terms of both human and national security, regional environmental governance holds great promise, but effective governance institutions and processes (either hegemonic or democratic) would be extremely difficult to create.

This chapter will discuss how the European Court of Human Rights (the Court) has used the margin of appreciation when examining the protection of the right to life in the context of terrorism. It will explain that because of the adverse impact terrorism has on human and national security, there have been challenges in the way these two can be reconciled. However, this chapter will argue that the security debate has detracted from the impact terrorism and counter-terrorism operations have on the human rights of the victims of terrorism. It will submit that national security cannot be a ground for allowing discretion to States in the way they interfere with the right to life and, by increasingly relying on the margin of appreciation, the Court risks blurring the strict standards under which the right to life has to be protected. Indeed, the Court should retain its supervisory role and scrutinise the means States choose to protect the right to life in the fight against terrorism.

Offline: Japan's daring gamble in an age of apprehension

Africa in the 21st century is still troubled by myriads of problems. These problems include neo-colonialism, modern slavery, ethnicism, racism, xenophobic attacks, environmental degradation, human trafficking, sexual exploitation, war, famine, terrorism, conflicts, etc. All these problems gravely impede human security. Human security is more than military or national security and refers to all that constitutes the good life and makes life more abundant for the people. Human securities include the access to food, portable water, education, good environment, human rights, etc. Resolving and combating these problems will require concerted efforts on the part of many if not all African nations in the continent and Diaspora. Some of these problems cut across national boundaries. Problems like terrorism, illegal migration, human trafficking, sexual exploitation, xenophobic attacks, etc cut across national borders. Though Pan-Africanism may have waned in strength it can be repositioned to harness African cultural and historic values to combat its contemporary problems in the 21st century. A hermeneutic method will be used to interpret the meaning and import of Pan-Africanism and human security. A critical analytic method will be used to discuss the issues. The paper finds and concludes that Pan-Africanism can be re-positioned to enable Africa combat the problems facing her.

This study specifically analyzed assessed the effect of political party online electoral mobilization on national security. Human Security and Securitization Theories explained how online electoral mobilization can threaten individual safety and national stability, and how such threats are framed to justify state security responses in Nairobi’s informal settlements. The study used a mixed-method design with 400 purposively sampled respondents from Nairobi’s informal settlements. Data were collected through interviews, questionnaires, and focus groups, and thematic analysis was applied to organize qualitative insights into themes, providing a comprehensive understanding of electoral security and social dynamics. This study observed that digital platforms can enhance electoral security by enabling real-time alerts, rumour control, and peace campaigns, helping communities and authorities prevent violence. However, they also pose risks, as misinformation, hate speech, and online echo chambers can quickly escalate tensions and undermine social cohesion, creating a national security challenge. Digital platforms aid political engagement and peace-building during elections but can also spread misinformation and incite violence, posing national security risks. Addressing this requires balanced monitoring, digital literacy, and responsible platform use.

This article seeks to examine the relationship between human rights and national security within the context of counter-terrorism legislation in the United States following 11 September 2001. Working from a constructivist point of view and using discourse analysis and public-opinion data, I aim to determine whether changes have been made to the right to privacy and the anti-torture norm under the administrations of presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama.

Human security is a concept that challenges the traditional notion of national security by placing the ‘human’ as the central referent of security instead of the 'state.’ It is a concept that encompasses health and well-being of people and prioritizes their fundamental freedoms and basic livelihoods by shielding them from acute socioeconomic threats, vulnerabilities and stress. The epicenter of “health security” is located at the intersection of several academic fields or disciplines which do not necessarily share a common theoretical approach. Diverse players in the “health security” domain include practitioners in such fields as security studies, foreign policy, international relations, development theory, environmental politics and the practices of the United Nations system and other multilateral bodies like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). Improvements in health are not only dependent on continued commitments to enhance the availability of healthcare and to strengthen disease prevention systems; they are very much enhanced by that intersection between global security and global health. What is emerging is global health diplomacy paradigm that calls for strengthening of core capacities in the public health and foreign policy arenas aimed at advancing human security through the strengthening of global health diplomacy practices. Human security in its broadest sense embraces far more than the absence of violence and conflict. It encompasses human rights, good governance, access to education and health care, and ensuring that each individual has opportunities and devices to fulfill his or her potential. Every step in this direction is a step towards reducing poverty, achieving growth and preventing conflict. Freedom from want, freedom from fear and the freedom of future generations to inherit a natural environment – these are the interrelated building blocks of human- and therefore national security.

The essence of human social security as a priority component of national, in particular economic security, is revealed. It has been determined that in the context of the aggravation of the current socio-economic crisis, and the threats associated with COVID-19, the solution of social problems becomes even more important and relevant. A hybrid war poses a particular threat in Ukraine, which significantly affected the state of Ukraine's national security, in particular, human social security. Its negative consequences are both direct and indirect, which is a real social threat. The impact of a hybrid war on human social security requires the justification of new, more effective mechanisms and tools for its strengthening. It is noted that the analysis and assessment of the state of social security should be systematic, comprehensive, evaluating the following components: the state of well-being and living standards; stability of social relations and organizational structure; level of culture of the society; availability of conditions for the prevention and resolution of social conflicts; processes of desocialization of society, etc. It is emphasized that social security must be considered in the context of a multi-level system, in particular, it must be considered from the point of view of the economic level, namely: nano-, micro-, meso-, macro- and mega-levels. The author's multi-level system of social security is proposed, which includes five levels: human social security (nano-level); social security of a business entity (micro level); social security of the region (meso level); social security of the state (macrolevel); global social security (mega level). The author's definitions of the content (essence) of each level of social security and their functional components are given.