Neighbor stability routing in MANETs

Mobile Adhoc Networks (MANETs) have emerged as a popular technology because of their wide application and independent mobility. Nevertheless, communication through MANETs can be effective because of their inherent nature of high mobility, which in turn results in a higher rate of data loss and delay. Therefore, for effective communication to be achieved, the MANETs’ routing performance must be enhanced. Some extant routing protocols like AOMDV can yield moderate Routing Overhead (RO) during communication. The review of previous studies shows that there is a need for improvement in the following areas: Computational E2E delay: the proposed Genetic Algorithm- Ant Colony Optimization (GA-ACO) was unable to reduce the computational E2E delay that occurs during communication. RO: The schemes that were proposed failed to minimize the RO in the network. Energy consumption: the reduction energy consumed by the network was reduced, however, high throughput and PDR could not be achieved by the method. On the contrary, the EHO-based AOMDV routing protocol achieved low E2E delay and RO but was unable to decrease the energy consumed by the network. Throughput and PDR: The protocol proposed failed to achieve high Quality of Services (QoS). Consequently, this paper aims to provide a solution to this communication problem by proposing a Hybrid Optimization-based Effective Path Selection and Multipath routing (HOEPSM) approach for MANETs. The proposed approach, which is HOEPSM is made up of two parts: Elephant Herding Optimization (EHO)-based AOMDV routing protocol, which makes use of EHO for the identification of the shortest path from the source to the destination. The second part which is the Hybrid optimization using Genetic Ant Optimization (GAO) algorithm, involves finding the best solution through the use of a GAO-based hybrid optimization algorithm. The results of the study revealed that the use of the HOEPSM causes a significant decrease in routing RO while enhancing the network’s Quality of Forwarding (QoF) of the network. Also, the simulation of the proposed approach was carried out in NS2, and afterward, compared with earlier proposed methods like DRARP and MDRARP. Based on the simulation results, the HOEPSM outperformed the other methods, with high Energy Efficiency (EE) (91%), Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) (95%), RO (155), and End to End (E2E delay) (102ms). These results can be attributed to the HOEPSM’s choice of the best and steady route from the source nodes and destination nodes.

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are infrastructureless and distributed communication systems that require sophisticated approaches to routing to cope with node mobility and heterogeneous application requirements. In the past few years, distributed hash table (DHT) has come forth as a useful additional technique to the design and specification of spontaneous and self-organized networks. Researchers have exploited its advantages by implementing it at the network layer and developing scalable routing protocols for MANETs. The implementation of DHT-based routing in a MANET requires different algorithms and specifications compared to routing in the Internet because a MANET has its unique characteristics, such as node mobility, spontaneous networking, decentralized architecture, limited transmission range, dynamic topology, and frequent network partitioning/merging. In this article, we present a comprehensive survey of research related to DHT-based routing that aims at enhancing the scalability of MANETs. We present a vivid taxonomy of DHT-based routing protocols and the guidelines to design such protocols for MANETs. We compare the features, strengths, and weaknesses of existing DHT-based routing protocols and highlight key research challenges that are vital to address. The outcome of the analysis serves as a guide for anyone willing to delve into research on DHT-based routing in MANETs.

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a dynamically reconfigurable wireless network that does not have a fixed infrastructure. Due to the high mobility of nodes, the network topology of MANETs changes very fast, making it more difficult to find the routes that message packets use. Because mobile nodes have limited battery power, it is therefore very important to use energy in a MANET efficiently. In this paper, we propose a power-aware multicast routing protocol (PMRP) with mobility prediction for MANETs. In order to select a subset of paths that provide increased stability and reliability of routes, in routing discovery, each node receives the RREQ packet and uses the power-aware metric to get in advance the power consumption of transmitted data packets. If the node has enough remaining power to transmit data packets, it uses the global positioning system (GPS) to get the location information (i.e., position, velocity and direction) of the mobile nodes and utilizes this information to calculate the link expiration time (LET) between two connected mobile nodes. During route discovery, each destination node selects the routing path with the smallest LET and uses this smallest link expiration time as the route expiration time (RET). Each destination node collects several feasible routes and then selects the path with the longest RET value as the primary routing path. Then the source node uses these routes between the source node and each destination node to create a multicast tree. In the multicast tree, the source node will be the root node and the destination nodes will be the leaf nodes. Simulation results show that the proposed PMRP outperforms MAODV (Royer, E. M. & Perkins, C. E. (1999). In Proceedings of the ACM MOBICOM, pp. 207---218, August 1999.) and RMAODV (Baolin, S. & Layuan, L. (2005). In Proceeding of the 2005 IEEE International symposium on microwave antenna, propagation and EMC technologies for wireless communications, Vol. 2, pp. 1514---1517, August 2005.).

Emergent Intelligence Based QoS Routing in MANET

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) are wireless networks formed by several nodes communicating on a peer-to-peer basis without being connected to any fixed infrastructure. These nodes could be laptop computers, personal digital assistants, mobile phones or sensors dispersed in an area to measure certain data and send the information to a larger node. Where a source node and a destination node are not within direct range, they communicate through multi-hop routing, i.e. nodes in between them relay messages between source and destination. The routing protocol plays a key role in finding and maintaining the route in MANETs. Routing protocol can be a uni-path and multi-path. A multipath routing protocol is designed to increase the reliability in MANET. This research work focuses on Quality of Service (QoS) based evolution of multipath routing protocol. For this purpose, diverse type of simulation scenarios is designed to find the impact of mobility, increasing the number of nodes and pause time in MANETs. The results revealed that multipath routing protocol has comparatively less delay (percentage decrease of 81.52%). While unipath routing protocols have less packet drop ratio (percentage decrease of 47.78%) and routing overhead (percentage decrease of 99.30%).

This study principally addresses the challenges associated with streaming videos in wireless Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), primarily constrained by wireless channels and node mobility. This study proposes a novel routing protocol incorporating a feedback mechanism and cross-layer architecture, supported by three key enhancements. First, it incorporates a route recovery strategy for detecting link failures and re-establishing connections based on predefined Quality of Service (QoS) metrics. Second, a novel algorithm estimates the available bandwidth, enabling dynamic adaptation of bitrate at the application layer concerning the source video. This novel rate-adaptive approach utilizes a scalable layered structure of the video coding, thereby removing layers that the network cannot efficiently support due to bandwidth limitations. Third, a gateway discovery procedure enhances the connectivity among MANETs and other infrastructure networks. This method employs available bandwidth as a parameter while selecting appropriate gateways and dynamically adjusts operational parameters like proactive area size and advertisement message frequency. The performances of the proposed Enhanced OLSR (E-OLSR) protocol are compared with the state-of-the-art routing procedures such as Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV), destination sequenced distance vector (DSDV), and optimized link state routing (OLSR), in terms of metrics like packet delivery ratio (PDR), end-to-end (E2E) delay, throughput, as well as energy consumption. The simulation results demonstrated notable improvements, including reduced packet delay, fewer dropped packets, and decreased link failures, indicating effective utilization of available bandwidth. The overall performance of the proposed E-OLSR protocol exceeds other traditional protocols and its security is enhanced through the integration of Blockchain Technology.

A mobile ad hoc network is an autonomous wireless network which consists of mobile nodes without any base stations. When a source node communicates with a destination node outside the transmission range of the source node, communication between the source node and the destination node can be through some other nodes between them. Many schemes such as routings and applications have been proposed for mobile ad hoc networks. However, since these schemes tend to be evaluated only through simulation experiments, it is not known whether they work effectively in real environments or not. Therefore, in order to verify their practical use in mobile ad hoc networks, it is necessary to perform field experiments using actual mobile nodes. If the network size is large, it is difficult to perform field experiments due to problems on limited battery, difficulty of topology control and so on. Realization of rapid topology change of the ad hoc networks topology is especially difficult. In order to solve this problem, this paper proposes a testing environment for mobile ad hoc network software, which emulates the field experiments in wired networks. The existing emulators are scenario-driven. So information of locations and movements of nodes from start of the test to end is given in advance. Unlike the existing emulators, the proposed environment adopts scenario-independent mechanism. The proposed environment can control any network topology for routing in mobile ad hoc networks. The proposed environment consists of a positioning server and multiple testing nodes in wired networks. The positioning server virtually configures mobile ad hoc networks and distributes their information such as the node positions to the testing nodes. And testing nodes themselves deliver their position information to the others. By exchanging messages between the server and testing nodes, any network topology for mobile ad hoc networks can be configured and dynamically changed while testing. It is therefore expected to effectively develop and verify routing protocols and applications for mobile ad hoc networks.

The demands of a higher degree of security level for the mobile ad-hoc network are yet to meet the best solution. Owing to the dynamic topology and decentralization issue, the mobile node suffers from a consistent security problem during communication stage. This paper has reviewed the existing system towards secure routing in mobile ad-hoc network and explored that there are still a lot of scopes to enhance the security level. This paper presents a non-cryptographic technique called as JIR2TA or Joint Invocation of Resource-based Thresholding and Trust-oriented Authentication using resource and trust factor to intensify the routing policies for strengthening the authentication process of a mobile node. The outcome of the study shows better packet delivery ratio, computational time, throughput, and end-to-end delay in contrast to existing secure routing technique.

Due to the high mobility of nodes in the dynamic topology of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs), it is challenging to define the precise position of a node in the network for effective data delivery. The paperproposed a hybrid algorithm for routing in MANETs called Adaptive GPSR with Dynamic Thresholds (AGDT). AGDT is a novel approach that combines the GPSR routing protocol with a dynamic threshold-based approach to increase the enactment of the network. The algorithm employs distance and direction-based thresholds to determine when to switch between GPSR and a perimeter-based approach for routing. The paper discusses the implementation of the algorithm and provides a performance evaluation of its effectiveness in comparison to other present routing algorithms. The results show that AGDT outperforms other protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and throughput. The paper concludes by highlighting the potential applications and benefits of the AGDT algorithm in MANETs.

ZhuJi,WeiYuandK.J.RayLiu,Fellow, IEEE Abstract—In self-organized mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) where each user is its own authority, fully cooperative behaviors, such as unconditionally forwarding packets for each other or honestly revealing its private information, cannot be directly assumed. The pricing mechanism is one way to provide incentives for the users to act cooperatively by awarding some payment for cooperative behaviors. In this paper, we consider efficient routing in self-organized MANETs and model it as multi-stage dynamic pricing games. A game theoretical framework for dynamic pricing-based routing in MANETs is proposed to maximize the sender/receiver’s payoff by considering the dynamic nature of MANETs. Meanwhile, the forwarding incentives of the relay nodes can also be maintained by optimally pricing their packet-forwarding services based on the auction rules and introducing the Cartel Maintenance enforcing mechanism. The simulation results illustrate that the proposed dynamic pricing-based routing approach has significant performance gains over the existing static pricing approaches.

The rapid advances in the wireless communication industry have paved the way for the enhancement of wireless mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) to support various domains including civilian environments, emergency operations, and military affairs. Source routing in MANETs is subject to some issues such as changes in the network topology, which lead to frequent link breakages that may increase the requests of route discoveries. Thus, this paper aims to enhance on-demand source routing protocols by proposing two mechanisms, a zone-based route discovery mechanism (ZRDM) and a link failure prediction mechanism (LFPM). ZRDM aims to control the flooding of route requests, and LFPM aims to avoid route breakages caused by node mobility. The performance of the proposed mechanisms was evaluated using network simulator 3 in terms of normalized routing load, average end-to-end delay, and packet delivery ratio. The experimental results showed that the proposed mechanisms outperform well-known mechanisms such as the dynamic source routing (DSR) protocol, reliable DSR, and zone-based DSR and segment-based DSR.

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) routing is a very challenging task because of the dynamic nature of the network. The linking of provisional communication assures based on the infrastructure of MANET, however, there is no centralised monitoring process for making the routing in MANETs in terms of trust and security. Therefore, the stability routing is not considered, which may break easily in dynamic MANETs. Thus, this paper introduces a trust-based secure routing protocol using the proposed atom whale optimisation algorithm (AWOA), which is the trust-aware routing protocol. The developed atom whale optimisation is utilised to select the optimal route with respect to the trust factors, like average encounter rate (AER), and successful cooperation frequency (SCF), integrity factor, and the forwarding rate. Moreover, secure routing is performed between the nodes using the proposed AWOA. The AWOA is the integration of atom search optimisation (ASO), and whale optimisation algorithm (WOA) that inherits the faster global convergence. The fitness function is newly modelled considering mobility, and trust factors. The proposed AWOA outperformed other methods with a minimal end-to-end delay of 0.0083 sec, maximal packet delivery ratio (PDR) of 97.73%, and the maximal throughput of 85.05% respectively.

Numerous routing algorithms have been proposed for routing efficiently in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) embedded in two dimensional (2D) spaces. But, in practice, such networks are frequently arranged in three dimensional (3D) spaces where the assumptions made in two dimensions, such as the ability to extract a planar subgraph, break down. Recently, a new category of 3D position-based routing algorithms based on projecting the 3D MANET to a projection plane has been proposed. In particular, the adaptive least-squares projective (ALSP) face routing algorithm (Kao et al., 2007) achieves nearly guaranteed delivery but usually discovers excessively long routes to the destination. Referencing the idea of hybrid greedy-face-greedy (GFG) routing in 2D MANETs, we propose a local hybrid algorithm combining greedy routing with ALSP Face routing on projection planes. We show experimentally that this hybrid ALSP GFG routing algorithm on static 3D ad hoc networks can achieve nearly guaranteed delivery while discovering routes significantly closer in length to shortest paths. The mobility of nodes is handled by introducing the concepts of active sole nodes and a limited form of flooding called residual path finding to the ALSP GFG routing algorithm. Under mobility simulations, we demonstrate that the mobility-adapted hybrid routing algorithm can maintain high delivery rates with decreases in the average lengths of the paths discovered compared to shortest paths, without generating a large amount of flooding traffic.

In location-aided routing of Mobile Ad hoc NETworks (MANET), nodes mobility and the inaccuracy of location information may result in constant flooding, which will reduce the network performance. In this paper, a Distance-Based Location-Aided Routing (DBLAR) for MANET has been proposed. By tracing the location information of destination nodes and referring to distance change between nodes to adjust route discovery dynamically, the proposed routing algorithm can avoid flooding in the whole networks. Besides, Distance Update Threshold (DUT) is set up to reach the balance between real-time ability and update overhead of location information of nodes, meanwhile, the detection of relative distance vector can achieve the goal of adjusting forwarding condition. Simulation results reveal that DBLAR performs better than LAR1 in terms of packet successful delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay and routing-load, and the set of DUT and relative distance vector has a significant impact on this algorithm.

Networks are being used in various areas and the demand of users nowadays has motivated the emergence of the Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET). MANET is a dynamic network without fixed infrastructure due to their wireless nature and can be deployed as multi-hop packet networks. It is a wireless network and has dynamic topology due to its node mobility. There are two types of MANET, homogeneous and heterogeneous MANET. An architecture has been designed in previous work to model these two types of MANET. Three scenarios have been defined from this architecture: scenario I (communication entirely within MANET, homogeneous MANET), scenario II (communication between MANET and wireless LAN, heterogeneous MANET) and scenario III (communication between MANET with wireless LAN and wired LAN, heterogeneous MANET). MANET has its own routing protocols which can compromised with frequent route exchange, dynamic topology, bandwidth constraint and multi-hop routing. Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) is one of the routing protocols in MANET. The aim of this research is to assess the effects of different packet size with the implementation of AODV routing protocols in homogeneous and heterogeneous MANET through the simulation method. The three scenarios above have been developed in the OMNeT++ network simulator. The results achieved from the test have been evaluated using the metrics assigned, throughput and packet delivery ratio (PDR). The tests show that the increase of throughput and PDR performance was parallel with the increase of packet size. From the test also, we can conclude that the performance due to the packet size effect in homogeneous MANET is better than in heterogeneous MANET.