Neo-Confucianism in History (review)

In the discipline of Historical Geography, capital location and planning of administrative districts are crucial issues. Since they have often been considered as two separate topics, attention, if any, has scarcely been paid to the relationship between them. The capital of China was transferred eastwards from Chang’an in the Tang dynasty to Kaifeng in the Song dynasty and then to Dadou in the Yuan dynasty, a critical transitional period in Chinese history which spanned three dynasties and seven hundred plus years. The way how administrative districts were planned changed with these transfers. This research investigates the relationship between the location of capitals and the planning of administrative districts with reference to these three dynasties.
\nThis thesis is comprised of eight chapters. The first one is an introduction, which briefly discusses how Confucianism sees the relationship between the location of capitals and the planning of administrative districts. This chapter also includes a literature review, research methodologies and the significance of this research.
\nWhat follows is an elucidation of the Centre Theory (Juzhonglun居中論), which is concerned with the location of the capital. The chapter will probe into how the theory came into being, its significance, where the centre of ‘the world’ (tianxia天下) was, and look into how this theory was influential as a factor in determining the location of the capital before the Tang dynasty. 
\nThe third chapter explains the locations of the capitals in the three dynasties with reference to the Centre Theory. It was found that the location of the capitals in the three dynasties accorded with the principles of the Centre Theory, despite the fact that the territory, the river system that transported grain to the capital, and the idea of ‘the world’ in the eyes of the ruler were all different in the three dynasties.
\nThe fourth chapter explores the relationship between the capital and the jingji (the capital city and its environs京畿), including the area of the jingjiin the Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties, the evolution of the jingji system, and the significance of setting up the jingji.
\nChapter five is a study on the relationship between the location of the capital city and the sub-capital. The sub-capital, which was complementary in nature, was usually not far away from the capital city and would move with the transfer of the capital.
\nWhilst the sixth chapter examines the relationship between the location of the capital and the establishment of higher administrative districts, chapter seven analyses the relationship between the location of the capital and the distribution of prefectures and counties. With the relocation of the capital from Chang’an to Dadou, these seven hundred plus years witnessed a gradual clustering of prefectures and counties in the east.
\nThe last chapter is a generalisation of how the planning of administrative districts transformed with the transfer of capital cities from the Tang to Yuan dynasties.

The economy of the Song Dynasty has always been a focal point of fiscal history research, and it inherited and influenced the monetary systems of the Tang and Yuan Dynasties. The "coexistence of silver and paper currency" system during the Jin and Yuan dynasties was a product influenced by the Song Dynasty's monetary system. Studying its potential role in promoting the development of the history of the Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties is of great significance. This paper will be divided into four parts: 1. Review of history and academic history; 2. Manifestation of the "coexistence of silver and paper currency" during the Jin and Yuan dynasties; 3. Evolution and origins of the "coexistence of silver and paper currency"; 4. Core connotation and crisis of the "coexistence of silver and paper currency".

This paper begins with an analysis of zongzhi (philosophical doctrine), a widely used concept in the middle and late Ming Confucianism. The paper argues that it was the fundamental notions of achieving learning by oneself (zide) and the discourse of philosophical doctrine that drove the creation of original arguments and scholastic activities more generally in the sixteenth century. The Daxue (great learning), the most important Neo-Confucian classic in late imperial times, has circulated in a large number of versions since Northern Song times. I first analyze the most cited versions, identifying especially the differences between Zhu Xi's orthodox version and the so-called Old Text derived from the classic Record of Rites. The latter version gained ascendance from the late fifteenth century when Wang Yangming's school strongly advocated it. To distinguish himself from both Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming, Li Cai provided a new version of the Great Learning by rearranging the texts of the Old Text and Zhu Xi's version. Li formulated his own philosophical doctrine from this new version and summed it up with the term zhixiu, an abbreviation of the phrases zhi yu zhishan (abiding by the supreme good) and xiushen (self cultivation), phrases that denote key notions in the Great Learning. This study finds that three elements were common and crucial to the founding of a new philosophical school in the middle and late Ming times: the new version of the Great Learning, the attention to key, terse expressions of doctrine, and organized lectures.

564 China Review International: Vol. 3, No. 2, Fall 1996 While Hurvitz may remain the preferred version for those requiring scholarly conventions such as the use of Sanskrit diacritics, the Watson translation will prove especially accessible to those encountering this important scripture for the first time. In the final analysis, readers will have to evaluate Watson's version based on their own needs and interests, but I, for one, will be switching to the Watson translation for classroom use. William E. Deal Case Western Reserve University William E. Deal is Severance Associate Professor ofthe History ofReligions in the Department ofReligion at Case Western Reserve University specializing in Japanese interpretations ofthe Lotus Sutra. m Thomas A. Wilson. Genealogy ofthe Way: The Construction and Uses ofthe Confucian Tradition in Late Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995. xiv, 376 pp. Hardcover $49.50, isbn 0-8047-2425-3. Thomas Wilson's Genealogy ofthe Way is about the ideological use of genealogical discourse in Confucian learning from the Song period into the Qing. This was ideological because, Wilson argues, genealogical discourse was used as a signifying strategy by certain Confucian scholars "to establish control over the institutional, ritual, and textual practices that have regulated statements about the Confucian tradition as a contested arena" (p. 14). The discourse—its constituent problems, organizing concepts, modes of articulation, and institutional sites—was genealogical because it defined tradition in terms of a lineage of orthodox masters (Dao School Confucians). In support of this, a body of texts (Confucian anthologies) was produced. Genealogy and anthology came together during the course of the Song dynasty thanks largely to the efforts of Zhu Xi, but the Song legacy was challenged from two perspectives during the late Ming and early Qing periods. First, followers ofWang Yangming redefined the genealogy of the Way and produced new anthologies to mediate between the Cheng Yi-Zhu Xi and Lu Jiuyuan-Wang Yangming lines, efforts that were resisted by supporters ofZhu Xi. Second, Huang y niversi y zongxi proposed a new, more historically grounded way ofthinking about the tradition ofConfucian learning. Wilson demonstrates that Song thinkers were quite conscious ofwhat they were doing and, when it came to their anthology project, what editorial adjustments were necessary to support the chosen genealogy. The ofHawai'i Press Reviews 565 book deals with the two sides ofthis separately, the firstpartwith state and private efforts to canonize an orthodoxlineage and the second with the various kinds ofanthologies produced in the process. Genealogy ofthe Waydraws intelligently and broadly from a vast amount ofmaterial spread over a period of nearly two and a halfmillennia. It is well informed in the matters it addresses. Its quotations are well chosen and well translated, and its interpretations of the texts are persuasive. Traditional sinological circles might define the subject ofthis book in other terms. Genealogy ofthe Way is about the use by Song and Ming Neo-Confucians1 ofthe idea of daotong (the idea that there was a single, exclusive succession offigures who had truly understood the Way, beginning with the sages and worthies of antiquity and then, after a fifteen-hundred-year intermission, continuing with Zhou Dunyi, the Cheng brothers, and Zhu Xi in the Song dynasty) to claim authority over truth, and their compilation ofanthologies in support of their claims. It explains how they began to make these claims in the Song (but looks at related issues in earlier periods as well) and how the Cheng-Zhu versions were contested and defended in the late Ming and early Qing. Although much ofthe ground Wilson covers is known, it has not been put together like this before. Moreover, he adds to our knowledge an account of a number oflate Ming to early Qing Neo-Confucian anthologies and a discussion of the apparent intellectual pluralism that informed Huang Zongxi's compilation ofthe Cases-of-Learninganthologies ofSong through Ming literati thought. However, it is not the seventeenth-century anthologies that claim our attention but Wilson's development of a postmodern perspective on the Neo-Confucian tradition. Genealogy ofthe Way is evidence, I think, ofhow valuable this kind oftheoretical reflection can be. It has given the author a method for making sense ofwhat would otherwise be a...

How did Neo-Confucians understand the history of Confucianism?' How did they articulate this understanding in books about the Confucian past? One of the earliest and most widely read books about the Neo-Confucian tradition is Reflections on Things at Hand (Jin si lu), compiled by Zhu Xi (1 130-1200) and Lu Zuqian (1137-1181) in 1175. This text is one of over a hundred anthologies compiled by Confucians from the Song dynasty (960-1279) well into the Qing era (1644-1911). Before the Song there were no such texts in the Confucian tradition. Although the emergence of Neo-Confucian anthologies is historically significant, these texts have not been systematically analyzed as a distinct genre which can tell us about how Confucians from the Song on understood-or constructed-the Confucian tradition. Prior to the sixteenth century most Neo-Confucian anthologists closely followed the organizational template found in Reflections on Things at Hand: selections of passages from the writings of a small number of literati concerning fourteen topics, such as substance of the Dao, investigation of things, moral self-cultivation, and regulating the household. There are at least a dozen other anthologies that use the same title, with certain modifications, and the fourteen topics of Reflections as a framework for selecting and ordering the writings of other Confucians. For example, Liu Qingzhi (1139-95) compiled Reflections on Things at Hand, Continued (Jin si xu lu), an anthology

By analyzing Zhu Xi and Zhang Zai’s three representative explanatory paradigms—that of Feng Youlan, Mou Zongsan and Zhang Dainian, the paper tries to show that studying Chinese philosophy in a Western way and emphasizing logical consistency will unavoidably lead to the defects of simplicity and partiality. In addition to Buddhism and Daoism, Song-Ming philosophy had also absorbed thoughts from the Pre-Qin, Han, Wei and Jin dynasties. The existence of multiple philosophical thoughts and their new synthesis lead to internal contradictions in Song-Ming philosophy and Li Xue 理学 (Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties). The contradiction between the doctrine of tiandao 天道 (the way in which the world runs) and that of xinxing 心性 (mind and human nature) was even sharper. Li Xue and Xin Xue also overlapped one another. The transition from the doctrine of tiandao to that of xinxing was a long journey. It was begun by Zhu Xi in his later years, and was finally completed by Wang Yangming. Unveiling the complexity and special characteristics of Song-Ming philosophy is a task for scholars on the history of Chinese philosophy.

Through consulting the ancient herbs and medical books,combining with modern literature and field investigation,this paper makes textual research on herbal medicine,and makes textual research on the name,origin,position and changes of collection and processing of the medicinal herbs in Ancient Classical Prescriptions. " Zhu" wasn't distinguished before the Northern and Southern Dynasties,but the efficacy of the techniques recorded in the documents at that time was similar to that of today's Atractylodis Rhizoma.Tao Hongjing put forward the theory of " red and white" in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. " Cangzhu" and " Baizhu" gradually differentiated,but there was no clear distinction between them. Since Song and Yuan Dynasties, " Baizhu" has been respected and classified in the literature. In Ming Dynasty, " Baizhu" was cultivated and differentiated into different quality specifications according to its growth pattern and origin. Maoshan is the genuine production area of " Cangzhu". The quality of wild " Baizhu" produced in Yuqian city is the best. In modern times,the origins of " Cangzhu" and " Baizhu" were defined according to plant taxonomy. " Zhu" before Song Dynasty was close to Atractylodes lancea, " Baishu" had been respected since the Song Dynasty. So when Song people revised the previous literature,they unified " Zhu" into " Baizhu" and used it for later generations. Its safety and effectiveness have been confirmed,and the wild resources of modern atractylodes are scarce. Therefore,it is suggested that when classical famous prescriptions are developed,the prescription recorded as " Baizhu" does not need to be changed in its origin,that is,A. macrocephala at present or can choose the appropriate basis according to the principle of local righteousness.Textual research shows that the origin of " Cangzhu" in the classical prescription should be A. lancea.

This chapter provides both a historical framework and an argument for the comparison of the philosophies of Emerson and Zhu Xi. The first of the six sections in the chapter demonstrate the influence of Confucianism on Emerson's writings through his engagement of the Four Books. The second describes the emergence and development of Neo-Confucianism in China, introducing the principal thinkers, Zhu Xi, Lu Xiangshan (隆象山 1139–92), and Wang Yangming (王陽明 1472–1528), who would define the philosophical views that framed Emerson's reception in Japan, as well as the more in-depth comparison of Emerson and Zhu Xi in subsequent chapters.

This article examines the cyclical nature of monetisation and demonetisation in Taizhou (台州) during the Song and Yuan dynasties. By analysing local fiscal policies, taxation systems, and economic structures, it reveals a complex process of monetary evolution. The Song Dynasty saw significant fiscal monetization, driven by military needs and implemented through innovative tax systems. However, the Yuan Dynasty witnessed a partial reversal, with a shift towards physical taxation and reduced monetary demands. This research highlights the interplay between central government policies, local fiscal structures, and broader economic trends. It challenges linear models of economic development and emphasises the importance of regional variations in understanding historical monetisation processes.

The Song and Yuan Dynasties are considered a period when art theory and practice reached a very high level. Among them, painting, as an important category, has great potential. Guo Xi, a painter and theorist of the Song Dynasty, proposed “The San Yuan Method” (means three artistic principles: high, far-reaching and flat), which was compiled into a collection by his son and included in Lin Quan Gao Zhi (the elegance of the bamboo and spring), becoming an important theoretical work in the history of Chinese painting. This article will start from the theoretical foundations of "high", "far-reaching", and "flat" and use specific text analysis and theoretical exposition methods to analyze the painting characteristics of Chinese landscape painting influenced by the " San Yuan Method". The aim is to analyze the creative purpose of landscape painting and appreciate Lin Quan’s heart (Lin Quan's heart is the view put forward by Guoxi, a landscape painter in the Song Dynasty; that is, landscape painters should have an aesthetic mind when observing and painting).

As the first volume of a two-volume set that studies the ancient Chinese academy from a socio-cultural perspective, this title explores the history of the academy and its relationship with the development of Confucianism in the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties. Inaugurated in the Tang dynasty and eventually abolished in the late Qing dynasty, the academy, as a unique cultural and educational organization in Chinese history, exerted extensive and profound influences on ancient Chinese culture, politics, and social life. The book first revisits the inception and development of the academy by anaylzing the socio-cultural context and different driving forces including social mentality, print culture, education systems, and so on. It then examines the reciprocity and thriving relationships between the academy and Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Yuan dynasties and Yangming School of Mind in the Ming dynasty. The title will be a useful reference for scholars, students, and general readers interested in cultural history, intellectual history, and educational history of ancient China and especially the Chinese academy culture.

《孟子》乃是極富爭議之典籍，從「子」而及「經」，乃是地位的提昇，其中涉及「官學化」與「經典化」兩項過程，前人於唐、宋之際《孟子》升格運動，多有討論，但對於朱熹匯聚聖賢相傳歷史意象，回應宋儒有關孟子爭議問題，卻是缺乏檢討，筆者撮舉《孟子集注》徵引材料，一窺朱熹思索所在，遂能得見在「儒學傳承」與「政治反叛」辨證當中，回歸於心性，以「道統」形塑孔、孟之傳，思索《孟子》經典地位的過程。足證理學並非為政治服務的工具，「內聖」工夫更非「外王」事業的捨離，朱熹吸納諸儒意見，反省儒學之傳，確定《孟子》價值，乃是回應北宋儒學實踐的結果，用心所在，於茲可見。

In the field of the pictorial decoration of Chinese architecture, the decor of the period of the Ming and Qing dynasties is considered the most outstanding since, at that time, the technique was perfect, and the methods of decoration were rich in their diversity, which was not possible in previous eras. The polychrome painting of official buildings during the Ming and Qing dynasties’ reign is quite different from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting. The transition from the Song dynasty’s polychrome painting to the Ming and Qing dynasties’ polychrome painting was completed during the Yuan dynasty’s reign. Due to the decrease of dougong in size in the Ming dynasty, polychrome painting began to be placed on beams. Xuanzi polychrome painting, which originated from painting beams under the Yuan dynasty, became the primary type. By the Qing dynasty, Hexi polychrome painting and Suzhou polychrome painting, which evolved from the folk polychrome painting of the Jiangnan region of the Ming dynasty, appeared. The Xuanzi type was one of the three main polychrome painting types in the Qing dynasty. It was fully developed compared to the Hexi type as it was used more widely. The article explains the development of the artistic features of the various decorative parts of Xuanzi polychrome painting during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the characteristics of each gradation, and the method of distinguishing it, as well as its place of application.

This paper considers what it would mean to conceive of philosophy as living. In the first part, by way of a discussion on intercultural encounter recently taken up by Cora Diamond, I first illustrate why philosophical conflict cannot be resolved within already given modes of thought or self-contained finite philosophical traditions, but instead transcends those. In the second part, I show why this dynamic plays out not only between cultures but also between the individual and that individual’s own tradition. I do this by drawing from insights of the two major proponents of xinxue 心學 (Learning of the Heart-Mind), Lu Jiuyuan 陸九淵 and Wang Yangming 王陽明. The way xinxue deals with both orthodox and heterodox traditions illuminates how we can understand philosophy as something living. It is neither self-contained and indifferent to its own heritage or to the culturally alien, nor does it consist of the mere accumulation of diverse philosophical contents. The deepening of individuality that xinxue introduces into Chinese philosophy consists in the relation of the individual to what has already been conceived. Ultimately, by grasping this dynamic that happens through the individual, we may better grasp why philosophy is not reducible to given modes of thought nor to self-contained finite philosophical traditions, but instead is infinite.

Fang-De Xie is the leftover person in the Southern Song Dynasty. In the politics, he is a chivalrous hero to resist the Yuan Dynasty. Refusing the Yuan Dynasty of Government's recruitment, he rejects any meal and isn't serving as the officer. He was good at in the literature poetry comment. The book of ”Wen Zhang Gui Fan” is different from the anthology of the same Dynasty and has a great of influence at that time. He had a book, ”Shi Zhuan Zhu Shu” in his researched field, the scholars of the Yuan Dynasty quoted the book many times, his viewpoints is very personal styles. The research is seldom in the past, this paper focus on the way and characteristic of interpretation and the contents of the thrusts. The paper was discussed and analyzed the interpretation for the ”Shi Jiang” of Fang-De Xie, and then shows the significance and value.