Neurolinguistic Programming: A Test of the Eye-Movement Hypothesis

Patients with Parkinson's disease (PD patients) have been shown to exhibit abnormally low levels of synergy in their posture control. The goal of this study was to determine how synergic interactions between vision and posture are affected in PD patients. These synergic interactions were expected to be impaired because PD affects the basal ganglia, which are involved in the modulation of both types of movement. Twenty patients (mean age: 60) on levodopa and 20 age-matched-controls (mean age: 61) performed a precise visual task (searching for targets in an image) and an unprecise control task (randomly looking at an image) in which images were projected onto a large panoramic display. Lower back, upper back, head and eye movements were recorded simultaneously. To test behavioural synergies, Pearson correlations between eye and postural movements were analysed. The relationships between eye movements and upper and lower back movements were impaired in the patients. The age-matched controls did not show any significant correlations between eye and postural movements. Overall, our results showed that the PD patients failed to adjust and control their postural stability for success in the visual task. The impaired synergy between eye and postural movements was not related to clinical variables-probably because our patients had early-stage PD. Our results showed that impairments in synergy can occur very early in PD. Hence, the analysis of this synergy might provide a better understanding of postural instability, visual task performance in the upright stance, and perhaps the risk of falls in PD patients.

Spatial updating is a process that enables us to constantly compute spatial relationships between ourselves and the surrounding environment during self-motion. Primates are able to spatially update saccade targets across intervening saccade or smooth pursuit (SP) eye movements. Various studies have demonstrated discrete remapping of visual responses, in several brain structures, before and after the saccade. However, no study to date has shown continuous updating of such responses during the eye movement, nor has anyone published a study of the neural mechanism of spatial updating for SP. In this study we recorded superior-colliculus unit activity from 2 monkeys. Animals were trained to spatially update the location of a saccade target across an intervening SP. Neurons were characterized (as visual, visuo-motor or motor neurons) and their visual / motor receptive fields (RF) were specified using a delayed saccade paradigm. After this each neuron was tested in the SP-saccade paradigm. Saccade target direction and pursuit ramp length were varied such that (across trials) the remembered saccade target passed approximately through the neuron’s RF at 2-5 different points on the SP ramp. Of the 50 neurons analyzed to date, every neuron that showed a visual response (n=47), whether it was a visual and visuomotor neuron, exhibited a clear and robust modulation in activity when the location of remembered target passed across the RF of the neuron during SP. In contrast, none of the motor neurons showed any updating related response, but instead only burst for an intended saccade. We conclude that 1) the superior colliculus visual memory response is continuously updated during SP eye movements in a gaze-centered coordinates, and 2) only visual responses (not motor) are involved in visuospatial memory. This may reflect a general mechanism for continuous updating during slow self-motion. Meeting abstract presented at VSS 2012

Regularly employed in a forensic context, the Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) model purports that the behavioral distinction between somebody who is remembering information and somebody who is constructing information lies in the direction of their eye movements. This strategy reflects numerous current approaches to lie detection, which presume that nonverbal behavior influences perceptions and judgments about deception. The present study emphasized a reverse order by investigating whether beliefs that an individual is deceptive influence perceptions of the respective individual’s nonverbal behavior as indicated by observed eye movement patterns. Sixty participants were randomly assigned to either a group informed that right eye movements indicate constructed and thus deceptive information or a group informed that left eye movements indicate constructed and thus deceptive information. Each participant viewed six investigative interviews depicting the eye movement patterns of mock suspects labeled as deceptive or truthful. The interviews were structured according to different right/left eye movement ratios. Results revealed that participants reportedly observed the deceptive suspects displaying significantly more eye movements in the direction allegedly indicative of deception than did the truthful suspects. This result occurred despite the fact that the actual eye movement ratios in both deceptive/truthful sets of interviews were identical and the eye movements were predominantly in the opposite direction of that allegedly indicative of deception. The results are discussed in the context of encoding-based cognitive-processing theories. Limitations on the generality of the results are emphasized and the applicability (or lack thereof) of NLP-based lie detection in forensic contexts is discussed.

Our perception of an event is often modulated by our past experience and expectations [1Ramachandran V.S. Armel C. Foster C. Stoddard R. Object recognition can drive motion perception.Nature. 1998; 395: 852-853Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar, 2O'Regan J.K. Noe A. A sensorimotor account of vision and visual consciousness.Behav. Brain Sci. 2001; 24: 939-973Crossref PubMed Scopus (1863) Google Scholar]. Here we used a magic trick [3Triplett N. The psychology of conjuring deceptions.Am. J. Psychol. 1900; 6: 439-510Crossref Google Scholar] to demonstrate how magicians can distort our subjective perception and we investigate the mechanisms behind this deception. We found that when a magician performed an illusion in which a ball was seen to vanish in the air, 63% of observers perceived the ball leave his hand, move upwards, and disappear even though the ball did not leave the magician's hand. Moreover, observers' illusory perception of the ball was determined by cues that indicated the ball's location, namely the magician's head direction, rather than the percept itself. Furthermore, eye movement records revealed participants' strategic use of social cues prior to looking at the ball. Surprisingly, however, when the ball was not physically present, observers did not look at the area where they claimed to have seen the ball vanish, suggesting that the oculomotor system was not fooled by the illusion. These results show that although people's subjective percept is determined by expectations, the oculomotor system is largely driven by accurate bottom-up information, which is consistent with the suggestion that there are separate mechanisms for perception and visuomotor control [4Goodale M.A. Milner A.D. Separate visual pathways for perception and action.Trends Neurosci. 1992; 15: 20-25Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3924) Google Scholar]. A striking example of magicians' deception is the vanishing ball illusion, in which a ball apparently disappears in mid air. This illusion is created by pretending to throw a ball up in the air, when in fact it remains secretly palmed in the magician's hand [3Triplett N. The psychology of conjuring deceptions.Am. J. Psychol. 1900; 6: 439-510Crossref Google Scholar]. If done convincingly, the observer should perceive the ball as moving up in the air even though it is no longer physically present. Similarly, when observers view a moving object that suddenly disappears, the final position of the object is usually perceived as being further along the path of motion than its actual final position [5Freyd J.J. Finke R.A. Representational Momentum.J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 1984; 10: 126-132Crossref Scopus (464) Google Scholar], a phenomenon known as representational momentum [6Assad J.A. Maunsell J.H.R. Neuronal correlates of inferred motion in primate posterior parietal carter.Nature. 1995; 373: 518-521Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar]. Much of the magician's deception relies on social cuing, in terms of his head and gaze direction, and we therefore predicted that the effectiveness of the vanishing ball illusion would be influenced by the magician's social cuing. Two different versions of the trick were created that addressed the extent to which the magician's social cues are responsible for the illusion. In the social cues pro-illusion condition, on the final 'fake' throw, the magician's eyes and head followed an imaginary ball moving upwards (Figure 1 and Supplemental data available on-line with this issue). In the social cues anti-illusion condition, the magic trick was identical except that on the final 'fake' throw, the magician looked at the hand concealing the ball, rather than following the imaginary ball (see Figure 2F). We also measured people's eye movements while they watched the video of the trick, to gain an online measure of the information obtained by the visual system. Immediately after having seen the magic trick, participants were questioned as to whether they perceived the 'illusory ball' moving towards the top of the screen on the final throw.Figure 2Participants' fixation points for the social cues pro-illusion (top row) and the social cues anti-illusion (bottom row) conditions.Show full captionThe dots represent the fixation points for the participants who experienced the illusion and the 'X' marks the fixation points for participants who did not experience the illusion. (A,D) At the point when the ball reached its zenith on the first throw. (B,E) at the point when the ball reached its zenith on the second throw. (C,F) At the point when the ball disappeared. For each participant the height of the terminal eye position on the monitor was calculated (distance between the fixation point and the bottom of the monitor, monitor height = 25°); each panel shows the means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for participants who experienced the illusion and those who did not. On the final throw (C,F) there was no significant difference between the final eye position of the participants who perceived the illusion compared to those who did not perceive it (t(36) < 1), which shows that participants' eye movements were not correlated with the perception of the illusion. On the final throw there was no significant difference in the terminal eye positions between the anti- and the pro-illusion condition (t(36) < 1), illustrating that participants' eye movements were not driven by the social cues. 19 participants experienced the illusion. For these participants the terminal eye position on the final throw was significantly lower than on the first (t(18) = 3.23, p = 0.005) and the second throw (t(18) = 3.57, p = 0.002).View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) The dots represent the fixation points for the participants who experienced the illusion and the 'X' marks the fixation points for participants who did not experience the illusion. (A,D) At the point when the ball reached its zenith on the first throw. (B,E) at the point when the ball reached its zenith on the second throw. (C,F) At the point when the ball disappeared. For each participant the height of the terminal eye position on the monitor was calculated (distance between the fixation point and the bottom of the monitor, monitor height = 25°); each panel shows the means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for participants who experienced the illusion and those who did not. On the final throw (C,F) there was no significant difference between the final eye position of the participants who perceived the illusion compared to those who did not perceive it (t(36) < 1), which shows that participants' eye movements were not correlated with the perception of the illusion. On the final throw there was no significant difference in the terminal eye positions between the anti- and the pro-illusion condition (t(36) < 1), illustrating that participants' eye movements were not driven by the social cues. 19 participants experienced the illusion. For these participants the terminal eye position on the final throw was significantly lower than on the first (t(18) = 3.23, p = 0.005) and the second throw (t(18) = 3.57, p = 0.002). Participants who perceived the illusory ball had a vivid recollection of seeing the ball leave the screen at the top, and typically claimed that the illusion was created by someone catching it beyond the top of the screen. 68% of the participants in the social cues pro-illusion condition experienced the illusion, significantly more than in the social cues anti-illusion condition (32%, χ2 = 5.16, p = 0.025), thus demonstrating that the illusion was mediated by the social cuing. Most of the participants claimed that they spent their entire time looking at the ball. However, these reports deviated strongly from where they were actually looking. Figure 1 shows a timeline indicating where participants were looking during the magic trick. We found a very high consistency in the eye movement patterns between the participants, suggesting that people employed similar eye movement strategies. On throws where the ball was visible, participants generally looked at the ball once it reached the apex. But rather than merely tracking the ball, most of the participants glanced at the magician's face before looking at the ball, indicating that the visual system uses information about where the magician is looking as a way of predicting the location of the ball. Our results show that an observer's percept was driven by the magician's social cuing, and that participants utilized the magician's social cues. However, there was a surprising difference in the susceptibility of these two systems to the illusion. On the final illusory throw, most participants claimed to have seen the ball at the top of the screen. The oculomotor system on the other hand was not fooled by the illusion. Figure 2 shows that participants only looked at the top of the screen when the ball was physically present. These results illustrate a remarkable dissociation between what participants claimed to have seen and the way in which their eyes behaved. Whilst their percept was predominantly based on expectations, their eyes were largely driven by the actual visual input. Our results offer a striking example of how the dissociation between vision for perception and for action, well documented in neurological patients [4Goodale M.A. Milner A.D. Separate visual pathways for perception and action.Trends Neurosci. 1992; 15: 20-25Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3924) Google Scholar, 7Goodale M.A. Haffenden A. Frames of reference for perception and action in the human visual system.Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1998; 22: 161-172Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar, 8Milner A.D. Goodale M.A. The Visual Brain in Action. Oxford University Press, Oxford1995Google Scholar] and neurologically intact subjects [9Aglioti S. Desouza J.F.X. Goodale M.A. Size-contrast illusions deceive the eye but not the hand.Curr. Biol. 1995; 5: 679-685Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (721) Google Scholar], also translates to more real world situations. We would like to thank the reviewers and Cristiana Cavina-Pratesi for their valuable comments on the manuscript, and Tim Smith for his help with a control experiment. Download .pdf (.1 MB) Help with pdf files Document S1. Supplemental Experimental Procedures Download .mpg (1.09 MB) Help with mpg files Movie 1 Vanishing ball trick pro-illusion condition Download .mpg (1.12 MB) Help with mpg files Movie 2 Vanishing ball trick anti-illusion condition

The paper highlights the scientific debate on the Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) issue. NLP is a collection of approaches, communication tools, techniques, and perspectives that determine how individuals think and communicate through language. NLP is used to recognize and modify patterns of human behavior. The sensory representational system, or the method for recognizing representational systems, which is made up of five main senses, influences this process. Systematization literary sources and approaches to this issue indicate that three sensory representational systems exist in the NLP approach: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (VAK), and that the individual’s preferred representational sensory system could explain manifested behavior and characteristics in the managerial and marketing sphere. The central purpose of the research and the significance of choice made about this area of interest is to determine each individual’s preferred representational sensory system (VAK) utilizing the original PRSS-VAK methodology. The methodological research tool was the PRSS-VAK methodology which contains nine statements, which are assessed on a scale from 1 (the least describes me) to 4 (the most describes me). The PRSS-VAK methodology would help to comprehend patterns of an individual’s behavior and allied cognitive or emotional processes. EFA (Exploratory Factor Analysis) with Varimax rotation was used to verify the methodology on a sample of 214 respondents from the Slovak Republic, and CFA (Confirmatory Factor Analysis) was used to validate the structure on a sample of 268 respondents from the Slovak Republic. This research empirically and theoretically confirms that one of the preferred representational sensory systems may be dominant. However, this may change regarding the current situation (stimulus, impulse). The research results could be beneficial as a springboard not only for researchers concerning this issue. It also indicates that quantitative research does not determine exactly to which category (visual, auditory, or kinesthetic) a certain individual belongs. Using the identification of a preferred representational sensory system could help to facilitate both management and marketing communications.

Cognitive distraction is happened when a driver's mind is off the road. It happened when a driver is looking on the road but his mind is doing a thinking process. It has been found that, cognitive distraction is the most dangerous type of driver distractions. This has been presented in the comparison table and stem plot between Control Experiment result and Task Experiment result. Information from eye movement and mouth movement are obtained using the faceLab cameras and their correlation is discussed here. Two sets of experiment (Control and Task) with 6 participants were completed for this paper. Results were presented in scatter diagram to show the correlation between eye and mouth movements. Stem plot is to show the different result obtained between control and task experiment.

1. Purkinje cell activity was recorded from lobules VI and VII of the cerebellar vermis during the performance of visuooculomotor tasks designed to dissociate the signals related to head, smooth-pursuit eye, and retinal image movements. Task-related modulations in the simple spike discharge rates of 157 cells were observed in three alert monkeys. 2. Of 65 Purkinje cells that were completely tested for all three signals, all exhibited smooth-pursuit eye movement-related activity. An additional vestibular or visual response was observed in 17 and 11% of the cells, respectively. Eye, head, and retinal image velocity signals were all recorded in the same unit in 52% of the Purkinje cells. The responses of 5% of the fully tested cells were associated with changes in the direction of eye, head, and retinal image movement. 3. The observed sensorioculomotor responses were direction selective in 98% of the Purkinje cells. For the Purkinje cells that were fully tested, 60% of the cells exhibited peak discharge rates for ipsilateral and 40% for contralateral eye velocity. Of these Purkinje cells, 45% exhibited eye, head, and retinal image velocity signals with equivalent direction preferences. 4. Of 42 Purkinje cells tested, 88% demonstrated some kinds of interactive responses during combined eye and sensory stimulation. The interaction of eye and head velocity signals has been discussed in a companion paper (38). The modulation in discharge rate observed during tracking in the presence of a random dot background pattern could be predicted from the dissociated responses to smooth pursuit in the dark and to movements of the background pattern during suppression of eye movements. 5. The sensitivity to smooth-pursuit eye velocity averaged 1.4 times the sensitivity to head velocity. In 80% of the Purkinje cells, however, the sensitivity to eye velocity exceeded the sensitivity to head velocity by an average of only 10%. The sensitivity to smooth-pursuit eye velocity averaged 1.6 times the sensitivity to retinal image velocity. 6. An increase in Purkinje cell discharge rate was observed during the open-loop period of the initiation of smooth-pursuit eye movements. This open-loop response was consistent with the presence of a visual signal during ocular pursuit, since these cells were also shown to be responsive to a dissociated retinal image velocity signal. Furthermore, the magnitude of the open-loop response indicated an enhancement of the sensitivity to retinal image velocity when visual information became behaviorally significant.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Reading Chinese, a kind of ideogram, relies more on visual cognition. The visuospatial cognitive deficit of Chinese dyslexia is an interesting topic that has received much attention. The purpose of current research was to explore the visuopatial cognitive characteristics of Chinese dyslexic children by studying their eye movements via a picture searching test. According to the diagnostic criteria defined by ICD-10, twenty-eight dyslexic children (mean age (10.12 +/- 1.42) years) were enrolled from the Clinic of Children Behavioral Disorder in the third affiliated hospital of Sun Yat-sen University. And 28 normally reading children (mean age (10.06 +/- 1.29) years), 1:1 matched by age, sex, grade and family condition were chosen from an elementary school in Guangzhou as a control group. Four groups of pictures (cock, accident, canyon, meditate) from Picture Vocabulary Test were chosen as eye movement experiment targets. All the subjects carried out the picture searching task and their eye movement data were recorded by an Eyelink II High-Speed Eye Tracker. The duration time, average fixation duration, average saccade amplitude, fixation counts and saccade counts were compared between the two groups of children. The dyslexic children had longer total fixation duration and average fixation duration (F = 7.711, P < 0.01; F = 4.520, P < 0.05), more fixation counts and saccade counts (F = 7.498, P < 0.01; F = 11.040, P < 0.01), and a smaller average saccade amplitude (F = 29.743, P < 0.01) compared with controls. But their performance in the picture vocabulary test was the same as those of the control group. The eye movement indexes were affected by the difficulty of the pictures and words, all eye movement indexes, except saccade amplitude, had a significant difference within groups (P < 0.05). Chinese dyslexic children have abnormal eye movements in picture searching, applying slow fixations, more fixations and small and frequent saccades. Their abnormal eye movement mode reflects the poor ability and strategy of visual information processing.

We have investigated the visual responses of 184 single units located in the superficial layers of the optic tectum (OT) of the decerebrate, paralysed pigeon. Visual responses were similar to those reported in non-decerebrate preparations; most units responded best to moving visual stimuli, 18% were directionally selective (they had a clear preference for a particular direction of visual stimulus movement), 76% were plane-selective (they responded to movement in either direction in a particular plane). However, we also found that a high proportion of units showed some sensitivity to the orientation of visual stimuli. We examined the effects of extraocular muscle (EOM) afferent signals, induced by passive eye movement (PEM), on the directional visual responses of units. Visual responses were most modified by particular directions of eye movement, although there was no unique relationship between the direction of visual stimulus movement to which an individual unit responded best and the direction of eye movement that caused the greatest modification of that visual response. The results show that EOM afferent signals, carrying information concerning the direction of eye movement, reach the superficial layers of the OT in the pigeon and there modify the visual responses of units in a manner that suggests some role for these signals in the processing of visual information.

Visual responses and eye movement (EM) -related activities were studied in single units of the superior colliculus (SC) of alert cats. Spontaneous EMs were encouraged by training. Throughout the SC (i.e., in intermediate and deep layers as well as in superficial layers), units were found to respond well to visual stimuli. Strong and consistent responses could be elicited by very dim, low-contrast stationary stimuli. Visual responses varied from phasic to tonic; some units responded tonically to stationary stimuli in the center of the receptive field, and phasically to peripheral stimuli. Many cells responded more vigorously to moving than to stationary stimuli, but very few responded exclusively to stimulus movement. The vast majority of cells were directionally selective. A small number of units were sensitive to the absolute, as well as the retinal, position of visual stimuli. These cells were activated by visual stimuli which fell in the receptive field only if the cat's gaze was fixated on one half of the screen. It seems that these cells must receive information about both eye position and the retinal (receptive field) position of the stimulus. It is possible that they reflect coding of target location within a head (or body) frame of reference. EM-related units were of two types: (1) about 20% of the sample responded prior to spontaneous or visually-triggered EMs, and (2) another 10% (or more) responded with, but not before, EMs. Some cells in the second group discharge almost synchronously with EMs and, thus, cannot plausibly be said to respond to the movement of images across the retina. All cells in the first group were directionally selective. The percentage of EM-related cells in the deep layers of SC is lower in cat than in monkey. Possible reasons for such differences are discussed.

This study aimed to explore eye movements and stress during eye-tracking gaming performance in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP) compared with typically developing children, and associations between eye-tracking performance, eye movements, stress, and participants' characteristics. This cohort study included 12 children with dyskinetic CP aged 5 to 12 years (mean age 8 years 7 months, standard deviation [SD] 2 years 3 months) and 23 typically developing children aged 5 to 13 years (mean age 9 years 0 months, SD 2 years 7 months). Participants played 10 eye-tracking games. Tobii X3-120 and Tobii Pro Lab were used to record and analyse eye movements. Stress was assessed through heart rate variability (HRV), recorded during rest, and eye-tracking performance using the Bittium Faros360° ECG Holter device. Eye-tracking performance was measured using gaming completion time. Fixation and saccade variables were used to quantify eye movements, and time- and frequency-domain variables to quantify HRV. Non-parametric statistics were used. Gaming completion time was significantly different (p< 0.001) between groups, and it was negatively correlated with experience (rs = -0.63, p= 0.029). No significant differences were found between groups in fixation and saccade variables. HRV significantly changed from rest to eye-tracking performance only in typically developing children and not in children with dyskinetic CP. Children with dyskinetic CP took longer to perform the 10 games, especially the inexperienced users, indicating the importance of the early provision of eye-tracking training opportunities. It seems that eye-tracking tasks are not a source of increased stress and effort in children with dyskinetic CP. Participants with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP) took twice as long to perform 10 eye-tracking games than typically developing peers. Participants with dyskinetic CP with previous eye-tracking experience performed the games faster. Fixation and saccade variables were not significantly different between children with and without dyskinetic CP. Heart rate variability showed no differences between rest and performance in participants with dyskinetic CP. Gross Motor Function Classification System, Manual Ability Classification System, and Viking Speech Scale levels were not correlated to the eye movements or stress variables.

1. Multi- and single-unit recordings in the torus longitudinalis (TL) of the percoid fishes,Holocentrus andEugerres, showed two kinds of response. The first was a predominantly sustained discharge to dimming in the contralateral visual field. TL receptive fields were always found close to the equator of this field, with their naso-temporal position mapping onto the rostro-caudal axis of TL. 2. The second type of activity was a bursting discharge synchronized with saccadic eye movements. Because these bursts persisted in the dark and after paralysis with Flaxedil, but were not evoked by passive eye movements, they appear to constitute a corollary discharge. Although the burst magnitude was correlated with saccade amplitude, there was no evidence for the encoding of saccade direction. 3. The two response types appear to be generated by two classes of neurons because visual responses were generally recorded more superficially in TL than saccadic bursts, and the single units recorded gave either visual or saccadic responses. 4. Electrical stimulation experiments provided evidence for reciprocal topographic interconnection between TL and its adjacent tectum.

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is a valuable technique for enhancing communication skills, motivation, and mentality in organizations. It helps individuals build rapport, understand others' perspectives, and convey messages with clarity and impact. NLP can help individuals achieve personal goals that go beyond monetary and performance targets, boost employee morale, loyalty, effort, and profitability. The study uses a secondary research method, which involves using existing data and research reports. The data required for conducting the study is available online, such as websites, articles, and reports mainly helps individuals in achieving organizational goals by improving communication, motivation, and mentality. It helps individuals set clear, well-defined objectives aligned with their values and aspirations, and develops appealing objectives that drive action and attention. Techniques like anchoring, reframing negative thoughts, and using positive language patterns can help individuals maintain a good view, overcoming challenges, and remaining motivated while working towards organizational goals. Communicating and influencing skills are equally important for organizational performance, and NLP provides excellent tools for improving these talents. Individuals can learn to create rapport with others, enhance their listening skills, and successfully communicate their message with NLP. These abilities are especially useful when working with team members, stakeholders, or clients, as they allow individuals to influence and convince others. NLP provides problem-solving and decision-making tools and models, such as the Disney Strategy and the Well-Formed Outcome model, which help individuals develop innovative solutions, evaluate their practicality, and develop successful action plans to attain their goals. The significance of rapport and understanding others is highlighted in NLP, allowing individuals to form deeper connections and cooperate more successfully with colleagues and team members. NLP offers a range of techniques and strategies that can greatly support individuals in achieving their organizational goals. By utilizing NLP, individuals can enhance goal setting, motivation, communication skills, mindset, and problem-solving abilities, ultimately leading to improved performance and success.

Bandler and Grinder (1975) proposed the construct "most highly valued representational systems" to describe auditory, visual, and kinesthetic perceptual orientations among individuals. They set forth a predicate method for determining an individual's primary representational system. Contrary to Bandler and Grinder's construct, experimental evidence consistently supports the principle of visual dominance among humans. In order to test the effectiveness of Bandler and Grinder's constructs, 221 volunteers were screened by an alternate predicate method. 22 subjects were selected as "highly auditory" and 19 subjects were selected as "highly visual." These 41 subjects were asked to give their first impressions to 75 simultaneous, audio-visual presentations of letters, numbers, and words. Twenty-five of the simultaneous presentations were discrepant. Subjects were then individually interviewed. Their verbal responses to standardized questions were tape recorded. Four questions were examined. (1) Do the verbs, adverbs, and adjectives expressed by subjects in their taped interviews yield discrete classifications of primary representational systems by Bandler and Grinder's predicate method? (2) Do the predicate-method classifications correlate with the screening classifications derived by the alternate predicate method? (3) Do predicate-method classifications indicate whether individuals will make auditory or visual responses to the twenty-five discrepant presentations of auditory and visual stimuli? (4) Will subjects classified as auditory or visual respectively resort to auditory or visual responses with greater frequency as task and stimulus difficulty are increased over the five series of discrepant stimulus presentations? Predicate tabulations indicated that the majority of individuals could not be effectively classified by Bandler and Grinder's predicate method. A point biserial correlation was performed using the auditory and visual screening classifications and the proportion of auditory predicates expressed during the experimental interviews. No relationship was found between the two methods of classification. Attentional responses were analyzed by a 2 x 5 repeated measures ANOVA. No significant relationships were found between predicate-method classifications and responses to the discrepant stimulus presentations. Though a significant interaction resulted, the pattern of the means across the five tasks was not the pattern predicted. There was no significant relationship between predicate-method classifications and attentional responses across increasingly difficult tasks. The major finding of the study was a visual dominance effect. Thirty-six of the thirty-seven subjects responded more frequently to the visual stimuli than to the auditory stimuli on discrepant presentations. 92% of the possible 925 responses were visual, supporting the generalizability of the visual dominance principle to an experimental paradigm in which televised linguistic

Glaucoma has been shown to impair hazard detection ability and increase crash risk compared to controls. Differences in visual search behavior of the driving scene may explain these differences; however, there has been limited investigation of this issue with inconsistent findings. Through eye movement tracking of older drivers with glaucoma, we explored their visual search behavior in comparison with controls while performing the DriveSafe, a slide recognition test purported to predict fitness to drive. Thirty-one drivers with glaucoma (mean age, 71.7 ± 6.3 years; average better-eye mean defect,-3 dB; average worse-eye mean defect,-12 dB) and 25 age-matched controls underwent measurements of their visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, visual fields, and useful field of view (visual processing speeds). Participants' eye movements were recorded while they completed the DriveSafe test, which consists of brief presentations of static, real-world driving scenes containing various road users (pedestrians, bicycles, vehicles). Participants reported the types, positions, and direction of travel of road users in each image; the score was the total number of correctly reported items (maximum, 128). Drivers with glaucoma had significantly worse DriveSafe scores (P = .03), fixated on road users for shorter durations (P < .001), and exhibited smaller saccades (P = .02) compared with controls. For all participants, longer fixation times on road users (P < .001) was the eye movement measure most strongly associated with better DriveSafe scores; this relationship was not significantly different between groups. Useful field-of-view divided attention was the strongest visual predictor of DriveSafe scores. Eye movement changes in the glaucoma group may reflect increased difficulty in identifying relevant objects in the visual scene, which may be related to their lower DriveSafe scores. Given the DriveSafe's potential utility in assessing drivers with visual impairment before on-road testing, further investigations on how DriveSafe performance and eye movement patterns compare to those during on-road driving are warranted.