No More Extinctions: Recovering Australia's Biodiversity.

Extinction is a profound biological event, yet despite its finality it can be difficult to verify and many frameworks have been proposed to define formally that extinction has occurred. For most taxonomic groups and regions there is no reliable list of species considered to be probably or possibly extinct. The record of plant extinctions in Australia is no exception, characterized by high turn-over within lists, low transparency of attribution and lack of consistency between jurisdictions. This makes it impossible to evaluate how many plant taxa have become extinct in Australia. We present an ecological framework for assessing the likelihood of plant extinctions, based on taxonomic soundness, degree of habitat modification, detectability and search effort, underpinned by the best available expert knowledge. We show that, in sharp contrast to both the fate of the Australian fauna and prevailing assumptions, only 12 of 71 plant taxa currently listed as or assumed to be extinct are considered probably extinct, and a further 21 possibly extinct. Twenty taxa listed as or assumed to be extinct have dubious taxonomy or occurrence in Australia, and the remaining 18 taxa are considered possibly extant and further surveys are required to ascertain their status. The list of probably and possibly extinct plants is dwarfed by the number thought extinct but rediscovered since 1980. Our method can be used for vascular floras in other regions characterized by well-documented and curated floras and high levels of expert knowledge, and provides a transparent platform for assessing changes in the status of biodiversity.

Context Many Australian terrestrial mammal species occupy relictual distributions that represent only a small proportion of their original distribution and habitat breadth. Aim To illustrate how examination of the historical records of a taxon, and their interpretation in an ecological context, can benefit conservation programs by counteracting the pervasive effects of generational memory loss (recency bias) and shifting baselines. Methods Historical records including recent detailed mapping of the routes used by two European exploration parties in the mid-19th century, were used to investigate and interpret the localities and environments previously occupied by Mitchell’s Hopping Mouse (Notomys mitchellii). Key results In south-eastern Australia, the current realised niche of Mitchell’s Hopping Mouse is a subset of the historical niche occupied in the mid-1800s. It formerly occurred in two bioregions and four sub-regions that are currently not known to support the species. Understanding these contractions is important in developing the full range of conservation strategies for the species. Conclusions This case study provides a valuable example of the potential effects of recency bias; for example, the tendency to focus conservation actions within the current realised niche and neglect consideration of other potential sites and habitats. Not recognising such distortions may restrict consideration of the full range of options for conservation strategies and actions. Implications Understanding the ecological history of a taxon has potential to play an important role in species conservation programs and should be a priority early in the development of conservation plans.

Conservation of forests over limestone (FOL), a unique and fragile ecosystem, is critical to ensure the sustainability of both nature and human communities in the vicinities. A survey was conducted to determine the gendered perception about the FOL, the importance of its ecosystem services, and conservation actions in Guiuan Marine Reserve Protected Landscape and Seascape (GMRPLS), Guiuan, Eastern Samar, Philippines. About 541 men and women of barangays Pagnamitan, Ngolos, Baras, and Sulangan, Guiuan, Eastern Samar participated. Both men (3%) and women (2%) in GMRPLS were involved in the conservation of FOL, e.g., policymaking, awareness campaigns, tree planting, and other activities. Also, about 8% of women (W) and 7% of men (M) were interested in participating in conservation actions. The men and women in GMRPLS were slightly to very well familiar (M=92%, W=90%) and aware (M=94%, W=92%) of FOL. The men (96%) and women (94%) were also slightly to very well aware that the FOL is protected by law and managed by an agency. Also, the men and women considered the ecosystem services of FOL critical, e.g., protection against typhoons, water, fresh air, and wildlife habitat. Conservation actions such as conducting forest information dissemination, participating in conservation programs, planting seedlings, and enacting a localized biodiversity conservation strategy specific to FOL were recommended by the men and women in GMRPLS. Forest regulation and governance of all concerned are necessary to ensure the FOL's sustainability and the continued enjoyment of the communities of its ecosystem services. Moreover, the study suggests extension activities, e.g., information and education campaigns in these barangays, to increase their awareness and appreciation of FOL and encourage their engagement in FOL conservation.

SummaryPast and continuing fragmentation and modification of ecosystems, as well as other threatening processes, cause ongoing biodiversity losses and species extinctions in Australia. At the same time as biodiversity declines, government funding for conservation and restoration is diminishing, leading to reduced action and greater reliance on private investment and community groups. In order to maintain and restore biodiverse ecosystems and the essential services they provide, both conservation of existing vegetation and habitat reconstruction are required. In this paper, we summarise the available data on planting area and cost from the Australian Government’s 20 Million Trees programme (2014–2020), the largest recent national‐scale revegetation incentives programme in Australia. We find that the current spatial scale of effort and investment in habitat reconstruction is insufficient to match the scale required to meet national conservation objectives. Furthermore, the funding rate ($/ha) and contracting arrangements are inadequate for the establishment of high‐quality self‐sustaining vegetation needed for the recovery of Australia’s threatened species and ecological communities. We estimate that the minimum amount of funding required for habitat reconstruction is at least five times higher than is provided for current national flagship programmes such as 20 Million Trees. We provide recommendations, designed to assist future habitat reconstruction programmes achieve their long‐term biodiversity objectives.

Private land conservation mechanisms are critical components employed by policy makers and conservation professionals to support the stewardship and protection of vital ecosystem services. While most research on voluntary conservation programs focuses on motives and barriers to participation, little is known about landowner activities and ecological status once property is enrolled in programs. Our mailed survey to landowners with property enrolled in the Indiana Classified Forest and Wildlands Program in U.S.A. revealed that (1) environmental motives, (2) residential motives like family life, and (3) having more land enrolled in the program were strong predictors of individuals who implemented conservation actions such as removal of invasive species and control of erosion. We also found that landowners witnessing environmental improvements on their land reported more conservation actions than those perceiving unchanged environmental conditions. A better understanding of landowner perceptions and conservation outcomes can help policy makers improve private land conservation programs.

Small, threatened populations can be vulnerable to changes in vital demographic rates such as mortality. Managers must intervene if mortality outpaces reproduction. Background mortality (e.g., from disease, predation, or inbreeding) may sometimes be offset by conservation actions like supplementation of in situ populations with captive‐bred individuals. However, if emerging threats impose additional mortality above background levels, managers must reassess the intensity and efficacy of their actions. We consider whether additional releases of captive‐bred Critically Endangered orange‐bellied parrots ( Neophema chrysogaster ) can compensate for emerging threats that escalate already high background mortality rates. Using population models, we evaluated four management scenarios: do nothing; status quo; status quo with additional mortality; and a higher effort supplementation with additional mortality scenario. We designed scenarios around observed supplementation rates since 2013, and we estimated additional mortality rates from realistic scenarios. We found that supplementation is preventing the collapse of orange‐bellied parrot numbers, and these efforts support a growing population. Additional mortality (where ≤ 20 parrots were killed each year after background mortality was applied) always produced smaller, declining populations. Even with an unrealistic 1.5× increase in captive breeding output, population sizes were lower than the status quo. The success of orange‐bellied parrot conservation is precariously balanced between the persistent 80% mortality of in situ juveniles each year—an issue that cannot currently be mitigated due to knowledge gaps—and ongoing supplementation with enough captive‐bred juveniles to maintain population stability. We highlight the species' fragility and demonstrate the value of simulations in conservation management where new threats emerge for long‐running conservation programs.

Establishment of conservation priorities for primates is a particular concern in the island archipelagos of Southeast Asia, where rates of habitat destruction are among the highest in the world. Conservation programs require knowledge of taxonomic diversity to ensure success. The Philippine tarsier is a flagship species that promotes environmental awareness and a thriving ecotourism economy in the Philippines. However, assessment of its conservation status has been impeded by taxonomic uncertainty, a paucity of field studies, and a lack of vouchered specimens and genetic samples available for study in biodiversity repositories. Consequently, conservation priorities are unclear. In this study we use mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to empirically infer geographic partitioning of genetic variation and to identify evolutionarily distinct lineages for conservation action. The distribution of Philippine tarsier genetic diversity is neither congruent with expectations based on biogeographical patterns documented in other Philippine vertebrates, nor does it agree with the most recent Philippine tarsier taxonomic arrangement. We identify three principal evolutionary lineages that do not correspond to the currently recognized subspecies, highlight the discovery of a novel cryptic and range-restricted subcenter of genetic variation in an unanticipated part of the archipelago, and identify additional geographically structured genetic variation that should be the focus of future studies and conservation action. Conservation of this flagship species necessitates establishment of protected areas and targeted conservation programs within the range of each genetically distinct variant of the Philippine tarsier.

Conservation provisions of US farm bills since 1985 have been aimed at mitigating negative environmental impacts of US agriculture. One of the long term goals has been to protect against soil erosion, with a focus specifically on highly erodible land (HEL). Conservation Compliance (CC) mandates that, in order to receive federal subsidies, farmers who plant annual crops on HEL must implement a conservation plan, with practices such as rotating crops and no-till farming. When crop prices increase, however, the incentives not to follow the plan increase, as conservation activities can reduce farmers’ profits. This study is the first to assess the performance of conservation compliance between 2007 and 2019, a period of historically high and variable crop prices, using geographical information system tools and crop data in a critical agricultural production region, the US Corn Belt. Our results indicate there was a substantial increase in continuous corn on HEL, a proxy measure for non-compliance, in several portions of the study area in correspondence with higher crop prices following the 2007 Energy Bill. This mirrored the change in crop rotations on all cropland. The increase was positively correlated with both absolute and relative corn prices. While at the height of absolute and relative corn prices there were increases in continuous corn on HEL everywhere across the study region except parts of Missouri, some of the largest changes occurred in environmentally sensitive regions and areas which use irrigation, thereby potentially creating disproportionate environmental impacts. Similar changes in continuous corn also occurred in all cropland in the region, indicating that mandatory conservation programs are as vulnerable to periods of high crop prices as voluntary programs. Better monitoring for both CC and other conservation programs is critical to ensure the policies work as intended.

Rural tourism (RT) has become a viable approach to sustainable development that empowers the rural economies and, at the same time, conserves the cultural and environmental resources. Although its significance is increasing, little empirical evidence can be found on how rural tourism development (RTD) leads to rural revitalization (RR) in direct and mediating impacts. The objective of the study is to consider the effects of RTD on RR in economic stability, cultural heritage preservation, environmental sustainability, infrastructure development, conservation activity, and social inclusion, and the environmental awareness and community involvement serve as mediating variables. The quantitative research design was employed, and structured questionnaires were used to gather the data on 465 residents of Wuzhen, a major RT destination in China. Reliability and validity were determined using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), and then hypothesis testing was done to test both the direct and mediated hypotheses. Findings indicated that RTD has a great impact on economic activities, cultural promotion, infrastructure development, and conservation programs. Besides, environmental consciousness and community engagement are vital mediating factors in the empowerment of sustainable environmental practices and social integration. These results point to RTD as a multidimensional RR driver. The novelty of the study is that it involves the incorporation of the mediating mechanisms into an overall RR framework with massive empirical data. The research comes to the conclusion that RTD could be a new contributor to the long‐term sustainability of rural areas and provides useful information to policymakers and community planners.

To ensure persistence of a viable population of the Persian leopard in its wide range across Iran wherein also supports trans-boundary movements of the leopards to adjacent areas, the Iranian Department of Environment together with the Asian Leopard Specialist Society embarked on preparation of a species specific conservation and management action plan. Therefore, relative need assessments, stakeholder analysis, and required studies were conducted since 2012. To address the actual status of the Persian leopard in Iran an appropriate participatory planning model has been developed and subsequently, planning activities were conducted during several workshops and sessions by involvement of a wide range of participants from all over the country. A total of 45 internal and external main categories of stakeholders were recognized which also include various governmental and non-governmental organizations. Relatively, questionnaire surveys have been sent out to 60 universities and 220 NGOs with relative field of activities to identify the potential capabilities for implementation of the operations. These five annual action plans cover main topics of awareness raising, training and empowerment; habitat, media, veterinary and disease, rehabilitation centers, trans-boundary habitats and international co-operation, genetic conservation, compensation and insurance program, Persian leopard national network; research, evaluation and monitoring, protection units and wildlife wardens together with relative laws and regulations. This chapter briefly introduces this national document which was officially endorsed in early 2016 for implementation.

The planning of wetland essential ecosystem area (EEA) conservation and preservation activities is important to support ecosystem stability, including the mangrove ecosystem. These activities should consider the ecological, economic, and social aspects. This study aimed to analyze the indicator of the mangrove ecosystem to support the planning program of EEA conservation in Muara Kali Ijo, Pantai Ayah, Kebumen. The research method used the mapping and planning analysis of the EEA conservation program using the indicator of mangrove density, mangrove diversity, and environmental indicators. The results showed that mangrove density in Muara Kali Ijo was 1,500-4,300 trees/ha (moderate to very dense) and was dominated by Rhizophora mucronata and Rhizophora styllosa. The potential of total dissolved solids, water salinity, potential hydrogen, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and nitrate had a good condition to support the mangrove’s life and growth. The ecosystem essential planning also had activity to conserve and preserve the Crocodylus porosus. The planning of ecosystem essential was developed in 18.5 ha, divided into five zones: mangrove preservation area of 5.90 ha, mangrove utilization area of 6.40 ha, mangrove arboretum of 4.40 ha, mangrove rehabilitation area of 1.30 ha, and specific utilization area of 0.5 ha. The wetland EEA in Muara Kali Ijo has important value in preserving the area from coastal disaster and increasing economic value with tourism and other activities. Keywords: Crocodylus porosus preservation, essential ecosystem conservation, mangrove zonation, Muara Kali Ijo, wetland conservation

There is increasing enthusiasm around the concept of soil health, and as a result, new public and private initiatives are being developed to increase soil health-related practices on working lands in the United States. In addition, billions of U.S. public dollars are dedicated annually toward soil conservation programs, and yet, it is not well quantified how investment in conservation programs improve soil health and, more broadly, environmental health. The Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) is one of the major U.S. public conservation programs administered on privately managed lands for which public data are available. In this research, we developed a multi-dimensional classification system to evaluate over 300 EQIP practices to identify to what extent practices have the potential to improve different aspects of soil and environmental health. Using available descriptions and expert opinion, these practices were evaluated with a classification system based on the practice's potential to exhibit the following environmental health outcomes: (i) principles of soil health to reduce soil disturbance and increase agrobiodiversity; (ii) a transition to ecologically-based management to conserve soil, water, energy and biological resources; and (iii) adaptive strategy to confer agroecosystem resilience. Further, we analyzed nearly $7 billion U.S. dollars of financial assistance dedicated to these practices from 2009 through 2018 to explore the potential of these investments to generate environmental health outcomes. We identified nine practices that fit the highest level of potential environmental health outcomes in our classification systems. These included wetlands and agroforestry related practices, demonstrating that ecologically complex practices can provide the broadest benefits to environmental health. Practices with the greatest potential to improve environmental health in our classification system represent 2–27% of annual EQIP funding between 2009 and 2018. In fiscal year 2018, these practices represented between $13 and 121 million, which represented ~0.08% of total annual USDA expenditures. These classifications and the subsequent funding analysis provide evidence that there is tremendous untapped potential for conservation programs to confer greater environmental health in U.S. agriculture. This analysis provides a new framework for assessing conservation investments as a driver for transformative agricultural change.

Community-based Forest management (CBFM) has emerged as a promising approach for reconciling biodiversity conservation with rural livelihoods. However, despite its growing implementation in Ethiopia, limited empirical evidence exists on how CBFM influences biodiversity outcomes and socioeconomic conditions across different local contexts. This study addressed this gap by examining the biodiversity outcomes and socioeconomic implications of CBFM across three districts in Northwest Ethiopia—Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja—where forests are communally managed. A structured questionnaire was administered to 412 randomly selected farmers, and responses were analyzed quantitatively using Likert scale ratings, descriptive statistics, and chi-square tests in SPSS Version 23. The findings revealed statistically significant variations among districts in terms of community engagement in conservation, awareness of environmental policies, and involvement in habitat restoration efforts. Fagita–Lokoma showed the highest levels of participation and knowledge regarding conservation laws (χ2 = 11.81, p < 0.019; χ2 = 13.3, p = 0.01) as well as active involvement in habitat restoration (χ2 = 301, p = 0.000). These differences appear to be associated with stronger local governance structures and greater livelihood dependence on forest resources in Fagita–Lokoma than in the other districts. It consistently demonstrated the highest levels of participation and knowledge, whereas Banja had the lowest levels. Most respondents (76.7%) indicated that socioeconomic interests, particularly related to timber, wildlife, and tourism, were key drivers of their conservation activities. While the economic benefits of biodiversity were generally perceived as moderate, the cost of conservation was seen as low to medium by 65% of participants. These results highlight the critical role of community participation and local awareness in shaping the outcomes of biodiversity conservation. This study concluded that CBFM can achieve positive biodiversity results when local livelihood interests are effectively aligned with ecological goals through inclusive and well-supported governance frameworks.

The loss of biodiversity through the destruction of native habitats is one of the most severe environmental problems in Australia today. The agricultural/pastoral sector is a major contributor to native ecosystem destruction. Agricultural/pastoral activities have resulted in vegetation clearance, soil degradation, altered plant species compositions as a result of grazing by cattle and sheep and water contamination by fertilizers and pesticides. This environmental degradation has not only caused biodiversity loss, it has also reduced agricultural/pastoral production. In recognition of the extent and severity of the environmental degradation associated with current agricultural/pastoral land management practices, the government has implemented a series of conservation incentive schemes and income tax concessions for improved water and soil management. These schemes are, however, limited in their effectiveness in encouraging greater conservation of native ecosystems on agricultural/pastoral properties. The primary limitations of the current government approach is that conservation incentive schemes are under-funded and tax concessions are contradictory. Given the failure of current schemes to encourage greater conservation of native ecosystems on agricultural/pastoral properties, it becomes necessary to find alternative financial incentives for landholders to engage in conservation activities. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether ecotourism ventures (and, more specifically, the implementation of user/entrance fees to agricultural/pastoral properties) can provide greater incentive for landholders to engage in conservation compared to current schemes. In this respect, the objectives, advantages and limitations of ecotourism are analyzed with particular reference to Australia's experience of ecotourism. The study employs a dicrtotorgpus choice contingent valuation format to measure individuals' willingness to pay for native ecosystems conservation in Australia, in general, and on Nappa Merrie Station. The data analysis indicates that individuals are willing to pay a yearly sum of $280 for the conservation of native ecosystems in Australia, thereby proving that they place value on native ecosystems conservation. However, mean WTP for conservation on Nappa Merrie Station is negative. This indicates that individuals object to the proposed bid vehicle as a means of financially compensating landholders for engaging in conservation activities. Although the potential may exist for ecotourism to provide the necessary financial incentive to engage in conservation on private agricultural/pastoral properties, the imposition of entrance/user fees would appear to be the incorrect approach. The study argues that the government should address the problems associated with current conservation incentive schemes and income tax laws. It is further recommended that alternative mechanisms to entrance/user fees be devised, such that landholders will be provided with a financial incentive to engage in native ecosystems conservation.

Agricultural intensification has negatively affected biodiversity throughout the world. In the United States, population declines of many early successional bird species have been linked with habitat loss due to agriculture. In light of this, recent efforts have attempted to prioritize conservation actions at continental scales. Importantly, these efforts have used existing data to estimate the global population size for declining species and set future population goals. Though these efforts consider broad scales for conservation efforts and provide population targets, they lack explicit plans to achieve established goals. One way to achieve these population goals is through the process of habitat restoration, such as voluntary private‐land conservation programs that restore habitat in agricultural landscapes and are implemented at a sufficiently large scale to achieve population goals. Our goal was to understand how private‐land conservation programs can be used to achieve population goals for declining species. To do this, we examined the population‐level impacts of the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program, a program that has created more than 57,000 ha of restored habitat in Illinois, for four declining conservation priority species, the Bell's Vireo (Vireo bellii bellii), Field Sparrow (Spizella pusilla), Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), and Willow Flycatcher (Empidonax trailli trailli). We surveyed 172 randomly chosen restored fields in 10 counties in central and west‐central Illinois during the 2012–2015 breeding seasons. We found that current private‐land conservation efforts in Illinois are probably effective in achieving state population goals for rare species with restricted habitat preferences such as the Bell's Vireo and may be close to achieving the goal for the Willow Flycatcher. However, more than 10 times the current amount of restored habitat (~1% of land used for agriculture in Illinois) would be required to achieve the population goals set for all of our focal species. Our results suggest that achieving population goals for early successional bird species using land restored through private‐land programs may be possible for some rare species, but the large amount of habitat needed for many species makes achieving these goals only possible with significant increases in private‐land habitat.