Nonlethal Weapons and Intermediate Force: A Necessary Complement to Lethality

A major concern of many government agencies is to predict and control the behavior of crowds in different situations. Many times such gatherings are legal, legitimate, and peaceful. But there are times when they can turn violent, run out of control, result in material damages and even casualties. It then becomes the duty of governments to bring them under control using a variety of techniques, including non-lethal and lethal weapons, if necessary. In order to aid decision makers on the course of action in crowd control, there are modeling and simulation tools that can provide guidelines by giving programmed rules to computer animated characters and to observe behaviors over time in appropriate scenarios. A crowd is a group of people attending a public gathering, with some joint purpose, such as protesting government or celebrating an event. In some countries these kinds of activities are the only way to express public's displeasure with their governments. The governments' reactions to such activities may or may not be tolerant. For these reasons, such situations must be eliminated by recognizing when and how they occur and then providing guidelines to mitigate them. Police or military forces use non-lethal weapons (NLWs), such as plastic bullets or clubs, to accomplish their job. In order to simulate the results of such actions in a computer, there is a need to determine the physical effects of NLWs over the individuals in the crowd. In this dissertation, a fuzzy logic based crowd injury model for determining the physical effects of NLWs is proposed. Fuzzy logic concepts can be applied to a problem by using linguistic rules, which are determined by problem domain experts. In this case, a group of police and military officers were consulted for a set of injury model rules and those rules were then included in the simulation platform. As a proof of concept, a prototype system was implemented using the Repast Simphony agent based simulation toolkit. Simulation results illustrated the effectiveness of the simulation framework.

Non-lethal weapons (NLW) have become an increasingly important class of weapons. Creating these armaments requires examination of ethical issues in their research and development processes. Chief among these ethical concerns is the need for research, testing, and evaluation of these weapons against their intended targets: people. Research and development of NLW can be compromised by the avoidance of human target experimentation. At the root of this avoidance is a lack of knowledge of the ethical and regulatory guidelines that govern human subject research within the NLW community. As with all research, NLW research activities must comply with regulations that rest on the ethical concepts of Beneficence, Justice, and Respect for Persons. However, moderate modification must be made in the typical framework surrounding ethical oversight of NLW experimentation. The process discussed entails a sequence of questions “Is the activity research?”, “Is the risk worth the benefit?”, “How is the potential subject informed of the risks of participating?” and “How are the risks of harm to the subject mitigated throughout the experiment?” The ethical conduct of NLW research is vital to protecting the rights of subjects and increasing the pace of developments of NLW armaments.

: The role of today's military in future conflict is far from certain. Rapid changes and instability in the world's political arena may thrust our military into a wide spectrum of conflicts at a moments notice. In order to meet this ever-present challenge, the United States military must constantly be prepared for any crisis. From peace operations to war, the U.S. armed forces represent the instrument of power that must never lose. The coalition military success in The Gulf War set the standard for future conflicts. The media portrayed a high-tech military capable of decisively defeating an able opponent in record time with few casualties. Unfortunately, the next conflict may not be so accommodating and the carnage of war could once again return to American living rooms. One avenue to avoid this, to attempt victory without fighting, is nonlethal weapons. The role of nonlethal weapons in future conflicts is likely to increase on a continuous basis. Political and moral benefits, limited destruction, and the American public desire to avoid war casualties, will force increased development and employment of weapons that avoid killing. These weapons will offer the operational commander-in-chief(CINC) additional flexibility, thereby enhancing military effectiveness, in both war and operationS other than war. The ultimate goal is to achieve victory, impose our will, or maintain the peace with as few American casualties as possible. Nonlethal weapons cannot, however, be considered a panacea to cure the destruction caused by war. Many problems exist in the international community concerning their use. Current laws and treaties, possible negative impact on operational effectiveness, and ethical issues prohibit the employment of many non-lethal weapons. Additionally, some so-called non-lethal weapons may still result in death or permanent disability to their victims if used indiscriminately or incorrectly.

Frequently, the just war principle of noncombatant immunity is interpreted as morally prohibiting the intentional targeting of noncombatants. Apparently, many just war theorists assume that to target means to (intend to) kill. Now that effective nonlethal weapons have been envisaged, it should be evident that there is no conceptual connection between intentionally targeting and intentionally killing. For, using nonlethal weapons, there could be intentional targeting without intentional killing. This paper explores the question of whether the noncombatant immunity principle should be revised, so as to allow uses of nonlethal weapons. Preliminary to answering this question, some other questions are explored, among which are the following. Why should a noncombatant immunity principle be accepted? Why is it morally permissible to intentionally target enemy combatants? Are noncombatants grievously harmed when they are incapacitated by nonlethal weapons? Is it morally permissible to intentionally incapacitate enemy combatants with nonlethal weapons, while knowingly but not intentionally incapacitating noncombatants? In order to focus on moral questions involving nonlethal weapons, questions about their effectiveness or legality are set aside. Instead of the idea of noncombatant immunity as expressed above, a delimited principle of noncombatant immunity is proposed—namely, that, in the conduct of war, the intentional grave injuring or killing of noncombatants is morally prohibited. Also proposed is a principle of noncombatant targeting, which would allow some uses of nonlethal weapons to intentionally incapacitate noncombatants.

This thesis represents the first critical examination of the proliferation of sublethal weapons in Australian policing. It traces the introduction of such weapons in Australian policing, with an emphasis on Conducted Energy Weapons (CEWs), in particular Tasers®. Using a multi-method, phronetic approach it examines whether the rhetoric used to support the introduction of CEWs is reflected in the policies related to the use of such weapons and in evidence about their use in the field. Phronetic methodology aims to explain social phenomena via the piecing together of large and small details that form the context of events; in this case the introduction of CEWs in Australia, the resulting policies established to control the weapon’s use (excluding Tasmania and South Australia where access to the policy documents was refused) and also evidence about its use in practice. This comparative analysis of CEW use in each Australian state and territory is directed at three specific sites: the rhetoric used in relation to the introduction and further justification of CEW use by police across Australia, the policies used to guide police in their use and the available evidence about how CEWs are used in practice. The analysis draws on a broad range of sources incorporating document, news media and interview material. The findings draw attention to the phenomenon of ‘mission creep’ occurring in Australia, where CEWs have come to be used well outside of their original intended purpose. The thesis shows that this pattern has already been observed in relation to Oleoresin Capsicum spray (OC Spray), which is the other type of sublethal weapon widely adopted by police in Western democracies. It is now being observed internationally in relation to CEWs. The thesis therefore adds an Australian perspective to a growing body of literature suggesting that sublethal weapons’ use by police is likely to have a corrosive effect on police/ community relationships and, crucially, on the principle of minimum force. It further argues that the weapons may have a profound impact on the delicate balance of consensual versus coercive policing styles. The analysis is set against the broader history of CEWs, and especially events in North America, where electronic weaponry evolved. Experiences in Britain and New Zealand are also examined briefly. The findings also demonstrate that the reasons for CEW adoption by police across jurisdictions, nationally and internationally, are very similar. It is argued that this is the case because decisions (and policy making) have been based on a series of misconceptions about sublethal weapons’ utility. The thesis argues that the problems arising in jurisdictions that use CEWs are so similar as to warrant a set of clear statements about the potential consequences of their inappropriate deployment in Australia. On this basis, this research concludes by making an argument for the importance of establishing strict national guidelines to control the use of CEWs and by offering a range of observations on what such guidelines could look like.

The purposes of this research are to determine the value of LC 50 96 hours and sub lethal toxicity test of latex liquid waste against survival, growth and oxygen consumption rate of catfish. This research was held from April until June 2013 in Laboratory of Basic Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, Sriwijaya University. The materials used for this research were latex liquid waste and catfish was a length of 11 cm ± 0.1 cm with a weight of 10 g ± 1 g as bioassay. This research used a completely randomized design (CRD) with seven treatments and  three replications. Treatment levels of lethal toxicity test were 0 mL.L -1 (A), 16.8 mL.L -1 (B), 18.8 mL.L -1 (C), 21.0 mL.L -1 (D), 23.5 mL.L -1 (E), 26.3 mL.L -1 (F) and 29.4 mL.L -1 (G). Treatment levels of sub lethal toxicity tests were 0% x LC 50 96 hours (A), 0.5% x LC 50 96 hours (B), 1% x LC 50 96 hours (C), 6.25% x LC 50 96 hours (D), 12.5% ​​x LC 50 96 hours (E), 25% x LC 50 96 hours (F) and 50% x LC 50 96 hours (G). The result of this research showed that the of LC 50 96 hours concentration of latex liquid waste for catfish is 24.5 mL.L -1 . The results of sub lethal toxicity test indicated that latex liquid waste significantly affect the survival of catfish in the concentration of 25% x LC 50 96  hours (F), while did not significantly affect on growth until concentration of 50% x LC 50 96 hours  (G). Exposure time periode affects oxygen consumption rate was concentration from 0,5% x LC 50 96 hours (B) until 50% x LC 50 96 hours  (G) where the longer of exposure time would decrease the oxygen consumption of catfish.  Keywords: Latex Liquid Waste, Toxicity, Catfish

With the proliferation of 'suicide by cop' incidents, the concept of less lethal (LL) impact munitions has definitely caught on. There is much to be said for sterile laboratory testing and wound ballistic studies, but having 'real world' operational data is invaluable. Two years ago, a data base was set up to collect this information. The data base continues to grow with incidents from a cross the country and others pursued internationally. Indications are that LL munitions deliver a similar amount of force as conventional police impact weapons i.e., police batons, PR-24's, nunchakus, etc. One advantage over conventional impact weapons, is that LL munitions can be used at much greater distances from a suspect or crown of rioters. This gave rise to the term: extended range impact weapons. Having the ability to examine numerous cases in which these LL munitions have been successfully used for the resolution of critical incidents, is beneficial in evaluating the application and defending the usage of these force options. This paper examines 187 less lethal shootings and discusses such things as: the distance the munitions were fired, the types of injuries sustained by the targeted suspect, the body area of impact, what, if any weapons the suspect was armed with, and the type of incident requiring police response.

This article seeks to assess the utility of non-lethal weapons (NLWs) under ‘real world’ conditions. A defence technology assessment framework is applied to analyse the use of NLWs during the ‘Troubles’ in Northern Ireland in the late twentieth century. Case analysis demonstrates that the effects of NLW employment in real scenarios significantly depend on the operational context of its use. The approach followed and the assessment outcome can be used to inform the ongoing debate on the utility of existing and novel NLWs to support stabilisation operations in current and future conflict settings.

Too often, military and law enforcement authorities have found themselves constrained by inadequate weaponry. An emerging category of 'non-lethal weapons' carries promise for resolving this dilemma, proffering new capabilities for disabling opponents without inflicting death or permanent injury. This array of much more sophisticated technologies is being developed, and could emerge for use by soldiers and police in the near future. These augmented capabilities carry both immense promise and grave risks: they expand the power of law enforcement and military units, enabling them to accomplish assigned missions with greater finesse and reduced casualties. But they may also be misused - increasing maligned applications and inspiring leaders to over-rely upon a myth of 'bloodless combat'. This book explores the emerging world of non-lethal weapons by examining a series of case studies - recent real-world scenarios from five confrontations around the world where the availability of a modern arsenal might have made a difference.

This article augments and enlarges the process of framing a more systematic and holistic ethical approach to non-lethal weapons that also provides caveats and restrictions – along the lines of jus in bello principles in the just war tradition – on their use. Rejected as morally impermissible is the use of non-lethal weapons as: (1) a way to circumvent or make irrelevant classical moral distinctions; (2) an ‘easy’ technological fix to complex moral and strategic problems; and (3) a method to make war more palatable and easier to use as both a military and political option. Non-lethal weapons can be ethical, and in fact may be ethically preferable to conventional weapons, only if they are used consistently with the following criteria (in strict order of priority): (1) to provide the military with more flexible response time and options, allowing them more time and space to carefully make the strategic and ethical judgments necessary in war and to respond with appropriate and proportional force; (2) to reduce unnecessary suffering on the part of non-combatants; (3) to facilitate the eventual restoration of peace; and (4) to minimize combatant casualties.

The fishes serve as indicator of water quality and are meant for ornamental and food value. Use of pesticides dose on their lives and almost all the pesticides go to water bodies in any from and any way. Environmental pollution is a burning issue at the moment for whole world. Many factors are behind these various types of pollution and varied effects are revealed by the pollutants. Sub lethal concentration of Diptrex on certain blood parameters such as Total erythrocyte count (TEC), Total leucocyte count (TLC), Haemoglobin concentration (Hb conc.), Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and packed cell volume (PCV) have been studied. Dipterex is an organophoshorus insecticide and its LC has been calculated by the log- 50 dose/probit regression line method. Sub lethal concentration of Dipterex given to fishes showed that TEC, Hb concentration and PCV decreased significantly, while TLC and ESR have been increased after 1, 7, 15 and 30 days treatment respectively.

In developing countries, an extensive use of insecticides to meet with increased agricultural needs is inevitable and the indiscriminate use and misuse of insecticides results in acute poisoning of the biosystems. The sublethal toxicity of the insecticide Ekalux on the fingerlings of Labeo rohita was evaluated to determine its effect on the haematological values. The acute and sublethal toxicity of the insecticide “Ekalux” on the fingerlings of Labeo rohita was evaluated to determine its effect on the haematological values. The fish was exposed to varying levels of the toxicant concentrations using static bioassay to determine the median lethal concentration. The LC50 value is 0.095 ml.The fish was exposed to different hours (24, 48, 72 and 96hrs) in sublethal concentration 0.095 ml and parameters like RBC,WBC,Hb,MCV,MCH,MCHC,PCV has been analysed. All haematological parameters except WBC were found to be decreased from control and the WBC was increased in all exposure periods.The values were statistically analyzed and most values were found to be significant at 5% level.

Scientific background: Alicyclobacillus spp. includes spore-forming and thermo-acidophilic microorganisms, usually recovered from soil, acidic drinks, orchards and equipment from juice producers. The genus includes different species and sub-species, but A. acidoterrestris is generally regarded as the most important spoiler for acidic drinks and juices. (i) The investigation of microbial community evolution was performed, since soil species could acquire specific phenotypic traits in relation to available nutrients. (ii) A variety of physical and chemical approaches to control A. acidoterrestris were proposed, and the study of sub-lethal injury related to extend of damage was examined. (iii) In vitro stress treatments were tested in vivo. Open questions: (i) Few data are available on the genotyping and phenotyping traits of A. acidoterrestris; (ii) Few data are available on the effect of innovative approaches to control A. acidoterrestris; and no data are available on the sub-lethal injury in A. acidoterrestris after invasive treatments; (iii) Few data are available on the control of A. acidoterrestris in complex conditions. Aims: (i) Selection and characterization of wild strains of A. acidoterrestris as a contribution to species characterization, (ii) studying the structural and functional changes that may affect alicyclobacilli and Bacillus spp. (used as reference) after the application of several sub-lethal physical or chemical treatments, and (iii) validation in a food to assess if an injury could occur also in a complex system. Planning of the research: In the first part, 25 wild strains of A. acidoterrestris from soil (23 strains) and spoiled pear juice (CB-1 and CB-2) were isolated, identified, genotyped and phenotyped. In the second part, 4 strains of A. acidoterrestris (the type strain, 2 wild strains isolated from soil and a wild strain isolated from spoiled pear juice) and 2 species of Bacillus spp. were studied under in vitro conditions after the application of chemical, physical and combined treatments to assess their susceptibility and the presence of sub-lethal injury. The characterization of damage was also performed. Finally, in the last step the presence of sub-lethal injury in vivo was investigated. Materials and Methods: (i) Genotypic traits were performed through examining of 16S rRNA and RAPD PCR (Random-Amplified-Polymophic-DNA). Phenotypical traits were assessed on the opportune laboratory media. (ii) Injury characterization was evaluated by Leakage of UV-absorbing substances and BSA protein assay. (iii) For in vivo assay, clarified apple juice was used. Results: (i) Data of soil-borne strains pinpointed that they could be divided into three blocks, represented by soil strains and by strains moving from soil to other niches. In this context, phenotyping and genotyping did not group the strains in the same way and many strains phylogenetically different showed the same phenotypic trend, thus suggesting that A. acidoterrestris could exist as a genomovar. In addition, the strain CB-1 was distant from other alicyclobacilli, although it possessed the same traits than the other isolate from juice (CB-2); therefore, it is probably a fast-clock organism or the beginning on an alternative pathway in alicyclobacilli evolution. (ii) Alternative approaches applied to control 4 strains of A. acidoterrestris determined a strain-dependent effect probably related to the isolation source; however, the presence of sub-lethal injury related to released nucleic acids, proteins and DPA by spores pointed out the damage on coat and cortex with loss of barrier properties. (iii) The study performed in apple juice confirmed the results obtained in lab media. Significance and Impact of PhD research: From the earliest times, A. acidotererstris was regarded as an important target in the quality control of acidic beverages. Since soil borne species often contaminate fruit juices and do not need strict extreme requirements of acidity and high temperature for survival, it is a great concern to investigate whether and how soil species could evolve from their ecological niches in microbial community to new environments as fruit juices. The present PhD thesis contributed to species characterization through selection and characterization of wild strains of A. acidoterrestris, and provided essential knowledge to validate the genotyping and phenotyping evolution of some strains of A. acidoterrestris. Moreover, this PhD project was the first attempt to investigate the changes that may affect alicyclobacilli after sub-lethal stress application; the release of proteins, nucleic acids and DPA was strictly strain dependent. Finally, the novelty of this PhD thesis was the study of sub-lethal injury on A. acidoterrestris spores in vivo. Future trends: A future perspective could be a focus on a reassessing of strains nomenclature, considering the evolution of some strains of Alicyclobacillus genus, and the different behavior of the type strain compared to the other targets tested.

This section describes key issues and particular considerations with respect to the use of certain less-lethal weapons. The list of less-lethal weapons here is not exhaustive, but it includes those most commonly used in contemporary law enforcement. Certain weapons are designed to be used against individuals, while others, less discriminate, are intended for use against groups of individuals. The description of risks or potentially unlawful use is not exhaustive, but rather presents the most common problems associated with a particular type of weapon.

In this analysis involving patients treated in Minnesota during protests after George Floyd’s death, 89 patients were identified who had been injured by less-lethal weapons (45 by projectiles, including rubber bullets; 32 by chemical irritants; and 12 by both). A substantial number of patients sustained serious injuries, including injuries to the head and neck.