Online farming based on embedded systems and wireless sensor networks

The Internet of Things (IoT) has the potential to revolutionize agriculture by providing real-time data on crop and livestock conditions. This study aims to evaluate the performance scalability of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in agriculture, specifically in two scenarios: monitoring olive tree farms and stables for horse training. The study proposes a new classification approach of IoT in agriculture based on several factors and introduces performance assessment metrics for stationary and mobile scenarios in 6LowPAN networks. The study utilizes COOJA, a realistic WSN simulator, to model and simulate the performance of the 6LowPAN and Routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks (RPL) in the two farming scenarios. The simulation settings for both fixed and mobile nodes are shared, with the main difference being node mobility. The study characterizes different aspects of the performance requirements in the two farming scenarios by comparing the average power consumption, radio duty cycle, and sensor network graph connectivity degrees. A new approach is proposed to model and simulate moving animals within the COOJA simulator, adopting the random waypoint model (RWP) to represent horse movements. The results show the advantages of using the RPL protocol for routing in mobile and fixed sensor networks, which supports dynamic topologies and improves the overall network performance. The proposed framework is experimentally validated and tested through simulation, demonstrating the suitability of the proposed framework for both fixed and mobile scenarios, providing efficient communication performance and low latency. The results have several practical implications for precision agriculture by providing an efficient monitoring and management solution for agricultural and livestock farms. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive evaluation of the performance scalability of WSNs in the agriculture sector, offering a new classification approach and performance assessment metrics for stationary and mobile scenarios in 6LowPAN networks. The results demonstrate the suitability of the proposed framework for precision agriculture, providing efficient communication performance and low latency.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consist of small nodes with sensing, computation, and wireless communications capabilities. Many routing protocol have been specifically designed for WSNs. And energy awareness is an essential design issue. In this paper, We study the routing protocol of wireless sensor network and describe the ZigBee based wireless sensor network architecture, analyze the principles of tree-structured routing and AODV routing, and then apply Zigbee technology to intelligent parking system.

Objective: Wormhole attack is a serious threat to Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) due to its wireless broadcast nature of communication, multi hop nature and resource constraints. Hence, to enhance the security and energy efficiency of a WSN, energy efficient Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is needed to detect and mitigate the attacks. In this paper, an Energy Efficient Intrusion Detection System (EE-IDS) has been proposed for IEEE 802.15.4 based WSN to detect and mitigate the effect of wormhole attacks. Methods/Statistical Analysis: The wormhole attack is detected by using the optimized watchdog system. The optimized watchdog mechanism is a trust based method which is used to evaluate the validity of all the nodes of the network. In proposed approach, the optimization has been done in the selection of watchdog nodes, in order to consume less energy compared to that of the existing approaches. The detection of wormhole attack is also completely relies on the three main factors like trustworthiness, packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay. Findings: The proposed EE-IDS is examined through extensive simulations by considering static and mobility model, and then it is compared with the existing IDS for detecting wormhole attacks. The performance of zigbee WSN is analyzed in terms of metrics such as packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay and energy consumption for static model. In mobility model, the Proposed EE-IDS is evaluated in terms of detection rate, false positive rate and detection time. Application/ Improvements: The proposed EE-IDS is used to detect the wormhole attack and improve the energy efficiency in zigbee based wireless sensor networks, which can be used for military, environmental, health and commercial applications.

Telemedicine aided by wireless sensor networks (WSN) has recently become a healthcare trend. Many previous studies have adopted the ZigBee-based WSN to implement a platform and/or a telemedicine system. However, the low data rate and bandwidth have limited the maximum number of nodes in a WSN during continuous and simultaneous transmission. The issue of low data throughput has not been addressed in previous reseazch. In this study, we propose an arrhythmia-aware system, and a new DSPbased WSN platform is developed for the high compression performance of physiological data in a ZigBee-based WSN. Proven by simulations and several real tests, the combination of the proposed platform and the sensor nodes can lead to more bandwidth conservation and extend the WSN scale for the next generation of telemedicine system.

<p>Suitable soil moisture content (SMC) can not only increase the ability of tea tree roots to absorb and utilize nutrients but also improve the utilization rate of soil nutrients, which can ensure a continuous and stable yield and tea leaf quality. Traditional methods for predicting soil water content generally have low accuracy and efficiency problems. A real-time soil information collection system based on a wireless sensor network was built, and a new predicting SMC Model (AO-SVM) for tea plantations using support vector machine optimized (SVM) by Aquila Optimizer (AO) was constructed and evaluated. The SMC prediction model was established using weather data, soil temperature (ST), soil electrical conductivity (SEC), and PH value (pH), and soil water potential (SWP), and so on. First, the correlation between individual SMC, ST, SEC, pH, SWP was analyzed and parameters with high correlation with soil water content were subsequently identified. The AO-SVM model was utilized to predict the soil moisture content. The experiments showed that the R2 of AO-SVM model proposed in this paper is 0.925. It indicates that the AO-SVM model is effective and feasible and achieves advantageous performance over long short term memory (LSTM), generalized regression neural network (GRNN), the opposition-based chaotic salp swarm algorithm optimized SVM (OCSSA-SVM), sparrow search algorithm optimized SVM (SSA-SVM), particle swarm optimization SVM (PSO-SVM), and the whale algorithm optimized SVM (WOA-SVM) model, which can help guide the irrigation and fertilization management of tea plantations.</p> <p> </p>

WSN is one of the most efficient technologies in intelligent communication and because of its advantages, this technology has been utilized in various applications. By using WSNs, different types of data can be collected and analyzed in wide environments. The high variety of applications and types of data available in this network can cause several challenges about heterogeneous data routing. This research, presents a Fuzzy Model for Content-Centric Routing (FMCCR) in WSN to solve these challenges. The performance of FMCCR is based on two basic steps: "topology control", and "data transmission through content-centric and fuzzy logic-based routing algorithm". In the first step of FMCCR, the network topology is constructed. In the second step of the proposed method, data transmission paths are determined based on network topology and content type, and data transmission is performed. The performance of FMCCR has been evaluated in a simulation environment and the results have been compared with previous algorithms. The results show that FMCCR reduce energy consumption and improve the traffic load distribution in the network in addition to increasing the network lifetime. According to the results, FMCCR can increase network lifetime at least 10.74% and at the same time, deliver at least 88.1% more packets through the network, compared to previous methods. These results, prove the efficiency of the proposed method for using in real-world scenarios.

This study was conducted to assess the impact of soil temperature, moisture, and microbial activity on the mineralization and dissipation rate of Carbofuran on a typical sugar beet clayey soil in the Loukkos area in order to predict the fate of Carbofuran in soil and environment (Northwest Morocco). The results of incubation investigations demonstrated that both soil temperature and water content have a substantial impact on the rates of Carbofuran mineralization and dissipation, and that the autoclaving of soil greatly lengthened the half-life of the insecticide. In non-autoclaved soil, the rates of mineralization and degradation increased as soil moisture content and temperature rose. In natural soil, Carbofuran half-lives ranged from 26 to more than 90 days, and dissipation rates followed first-order kinetics. Chemical degradation and microbial breakdown are the principal pathways of Carbofuran degradation which are highly dependent on soil temperature and moisture contents. However, the half-life increased 3.6 times in the autoclaved soil, from 39 to 142 days. Autoclaving prevented mineralization, demonstrating the significance of microbes in the pesticide's breakdown process. However, since bound residues developed in large concentrations (19%) in the autoclaved soil, it appears that the insecticide was also dissolved by non-biological processes. Insecticide risk assessment studies and the validation of pesticide dissipation models for clayey soils in sugar beet-growing regions of Morocco may benefit from these findings.

Ongoing advancements in electromechanical, power electronics and wireless communications have made possible the use of wireless sensor networks in remote applications. A wide range of applications such as monitoring of environmental conditions, forest fire protection, disaster management, and target monitoring in military applications utilize these sensor networks to solve problems. This has made wireless sensor networks the hottest topic for research today. These remote and unattended applications require a huge number of sensor nodes working efficiently together for a common goal. Since sensor nodes have limited resources, like processing, power and sensing capacity, these resources need to be used in efficient manner in order to improve a network’s lifetime. One of the most important methods to achieve this is using clusters. Nodes may not have the same energy levels, which makes it even more important for these clusters to work efficiently together to save power. Wireless sensor networks are of homogeneous and heterogeneous type. This paper presents a survey of energy-efficient clustering mechanisms in heterogeneous wireless sensor networks. Nodes in homogeneous wireless sensor networks have similar resources, however heterogeneous networks have nodes with different energy levels that can be effectively used to enhance a network’s lifetime.

When designing a wireless sensor network based on ZigBee, it is very important to choose the right network topology, especially in networks with many nodes such as residential areas. Choosing the wrong topology will have an impact on the performance of the wireless sensor network as a whole because it will cause a large delay value. To overcome this, in this study a ZigBee-based wireless sensor network simulation was carried out using an environmental model consisting of several residential units, with one ZigBee device for each house. In addition, three ZigBee network topologies namely mesh, star, and tree are used in this simulation. This is done to determine which topology model will work best in a residential environment. The housing used for the simulation in this study is Citraland Waterfront City Housing which is located in Palu City, Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. By using simulations in the Opnet Modeler 14.5 application, it is known that the star topology on the ZigBee network is suitable for application in residential areas with a large number of nodes. This can be seen from the highest throughput values and the lowest media access delay, end-to-end delay, hop number, and packet dropped values compared to tree and mesh topologies.

Smart Farming in Europe

In mission critical wireless sensor networks (WSNs) accurate timestamping of the occurrence of events measured by the sensor nodes is often required together with a high degree of reliability. While precise timestamping requires synchronization of the sensor nodes, reliability is obtained by adding redundancy in all potential single point of failure nodes. In this paper, we focus on a ZigBee-based WSN using two personal area network (PAN) coordinators with different PAN identifiers (IDs) and, for this configuration, we propose a solution where if the primary PAN coordinator goes down, connections are transferred to the other by changing the PAN ID of the nodes. Our proposed solution provides significant gains in terms of recovery speed and timing synchronization accuracy in comparison to a solution that is proposed in the literature.

This paper outlines dynamics of near-surface hydrothermal processes and analyzes the characteristics of moisture distribution during the freeze–thaw period in a typical black soil zone around Harbin, Northeastern China, a region with a moderate depth of seasonally frozen ground and one of the most important granaries in China. At Field Site 1, we analyzed the soil temperature and soil moisture content data from November 2011 to April 2012 from soil depths of 1, 5, 10, and 15 cm in sunny slope, and from depths of 1, 5, and 10 cm in shady slope black soil farmland. At Field Site 2, soil samples were collected from a 168 m long sloping black soil field at locations 10, 50, 100, and 150 m from the bottom of the slope at different depths of 0–1 cm, 1–5 cm, and 5–10 cm at the same location. Analysis of the monitored Site 1 soil temperature and soil moisture content data showed that the soil moisture content and soil temperature fit line is consistent with a Gaussian distribution rather than a linear distribution during the freeze–thaw period. The soil moisture content and time with temperature fit line is in accordance with a Gaussian distribution during the freeze–thaw period. Site 2 soil samples were analyzed, and the soil moisture contents of the sloping black soil farmland were obtained during six different freeze–thaw periods. It was verified that the soil moisture content and time with temperature fit line is in accordance with a Gaussian distribution during the six different freeze–thaw periods. The maximum surface soil moisture content was reached during the early freeze–thaw period, which is consistent with the natural phenomenon of early spring peak soil moisture content under temperature rise and snow melt. The soil moisture contents gradually increased from the top to the bottom in sloping black soil farmland during the freeze–thaw period. Since the soil moisture content is related to soil temperature during the freeze–thaw cycle, we validated the correlation between soil temperature spatiotemporal China Meteorological Assimilation Driving Datasets for the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model–Soil Temperature (CMADS-ST) data and monitored data. The practicality of CMADS-ST in black soil slope farmland in the seasonal frozen ground zone of the study area is very good. This research has important significance for decision-making for protecting water and soil environments in black soil slope farmland.

This paper is intended to design a ZigBee wireless network node based on the advanced RISC machines (ARM), so as to facilitate the network usage process. The performance of the new sensor is subject to antenna test and simulation experiment. The HFSS simulation method is adopted, and the antenna size and scanning frequency are optimized through analyzing the research status of ZigBee technology and the working principle of ZigBee protocol stack based on parameters, such as, the return loss and direction of the antenna, which not only increases the accuracy of analysis and but also reduces the reflection coefficient. The experimental results show that when L2 is 14. 9mm, the effect is the best, and Sll is -26.6 dB. Based on the above findings, it is concluded that the integrated antennas on the printed circuit board (PCB) board can reduce the production cost of the antennas; thus, IFA antennas can meet the requirements of ZigBee based wireless sensor network in term of antenna performance.

The Wireless sensor network is widely being used in fields like agriculture. Continuous monitoring of agricultural fields is important in terms of control and protection of the plants through sensors and the real-time monitoring of the agricultural system is performed. This paper provides a detailed review of how the sensor network is being used in agriculture where the transfer of data is done by the Zigbee and the data is stored in the microcontroller. And also gives the knowledge about how the sensors are being placed in the field and the information collected is being used by the farmers. Also, the architecture of WSN is discussed which gives information about the functioning of each layer in the OSI model.

In a ZigBee network, low-cost, low-power sensor nodes are deployed to carry out specific tasks like environment sensing, home automation, human and animal condition monitoring, and robot navigation monitoring etc. Normally the network comprises of numerous sensor nodes deployed in different locations and a coordinator node where the sensor nodes report back the sensed data for possible analysis and further action. For certain applications it is desirable to be able to locate the sensor node within the network. Currently localisation can be achieved using time dependent methods (TOA and TDOA) or received signal strength (RSS). Time dependent approaches require time synchronisation at all times which can be difficult to achieve. RSS based method is simple and cost effective but require at least three anchor nodes for a nodes location to be calculated via triangulation. Such a method can increase the complexity and cost of a network deployment. This paper presents a single anchor based location system which utilizes a differential two-element antenna array to perform node localization. An experimental system is introduced and results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed system. The anchor node, which can also be the network gateway, is connected to two dipole antennas separated by ⋋/2. The relative phase of each antenna can be varied using a phase shifter. The combined output of the two antennas can be used to create sum and difference radiation patterns, and to steer the antenna radiation pattern. Experimental validation was performed using seven XBee sensor nodes. Accurate azimuthal localization (relative to the anchor node) can be achieved and range estimation can be made with minimal errors. Adaptive path-loss model estimation can further improve range estimation. Overall, this cost effective localisation system performs well for ZigBee based wireless sensor networks.