Overexplicit Second Language Reference: Evidence for the Cognitive Load Hypothesis

The first part is a summarized report on experiments on repetitive serial reaction tasks. If the cognitive load of the repetitive task is low, a decrease of CFF and of the subjective activation level as well as an increase of the heart period variability can be observed. These symptoms of boredom are limited and changed if the repetitive tasks are associated with moderate or high cognitive loads. The second part is a summary of a survey on accounting machine operators. The results show an increasing incidence of localized fatigue symptoms with increasing ulnar deviation, or with greater angles in the elbows or the neck. It is evident that repetitive tasks are often associated with constrained body postures leading to localized fatigue symptoms.

ABSTRACTOne central question in research on spoken language communication concerns how speakers decide how explicit to make a referential expression. In the present paper, we address the debate between a discourse-based approach and a listener-based approach to the choice of referring expressions by testing second language (L2) learners of English on the production of English referential expressions, and comparing their performance to a group of monolingual speakers of English. In two experiments, we found that when native speakers of English use full noun phrases, the L2 speakers tend to choose a pronoun, even when the use of a pronoun leads to ambiguity. Our results show that the pattern observed is not the result of cross-linguistic interference from the L1. Furthermore, a clear dissociation is found between calculating the discourse information and taking the listener's perspective into account, supporting a listener's based approach to the choice of referring expressions.

Multi-cue user interfaces (MCUIs) are a typical set of graphical user interfaces that are commonly used in augmented reality because of its simultaneous encoding of multiple visual cues into interaction tasks. Previous investigations have proven the advantageous impacts of MCUIs on usability for one-time tasks. With the increasing prevalence of MCUIs in industrial environments, it is imperative to investigate the influence of MCUIs on users’ cognitive load for repetitive tasks. We replicated the repetitive processes of sorting parcels in modern warehouses and conducted a series of empirical investigations to assess the influence of MCUIs on cognitive load and perceived usability. The results showed the effectiveness of MCUIs in reducing cognitive load and physical fatigue and revealed the correlations between the participants’ task efficiency and the quantity of visual cues. In addition, the study unveiled the positive impact of MCUIs on the overall perceived usability, although the specific aspects -ease of use and overall satisfaction- are not affected.

This chapter examines reference in planned, deliberated language production. Using evidence from examples of institutional writing (writing text in academic, professional, and social settings), the effects of the written mode of production on referential choice, including evidence from keystroke logging methods which give us insight into revisions during the writing process. In comparison with spontaneous discourse, we demonstrate how the relatively low frequency of pronominal reference that is typical of spontaneous discourse is replaced with more complex referential expressions. We also consider whether referential choice is a feature of genre as we examine the referential profiles of different text types. The chapter concludes that referring expressions in prepared discourse tend to be more frequently information rich and consequently, the modification and qualification zones of the noun phrase are more active in this type of discourse.

Switch-reference has been analyzed as a reference tracking mechanism, whose main function is to avoid ambiguity of reference. One domain where this function has been argued to manifest itself is referential choice. Kibrik (Kibrik, Andrej. 2011. Reference in discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press) notably proposed that switch-reference marking plays the role of a referential aid, which helps to prevent referential conflict, thereby enabling the production of reduced referential expressions such as pronouns and zeros. The present study probes this theory through an analysis of the role of switch-reference marking in multifactorial models of referential choice in Mbyá Guaraní. We show that while switch-reference increases the likelihood of mention reduction in Mbyá Guaraní, this effect is marginal relative to other predictors of referential choice. We argue that this result is compatible with the analysis of switch-reference as a referential aid, but also supports analyses that emphasize the multiplicity of its functions, beyond the disambiguation of reference.

Native English speakers need more time to recognize capital letters in reading, yet the influence of capitals upon Chinese learners' reading performance is seldom studied. We conducted an eye tracker experiment to explore the cognitive features of Chinese learners in reading texts containing capital letters. Effect of English proficiency on capital letter reading is also studied. The results showed that capitals significantly increase the cognitive load in Chinese learners' reading process, complicate their cognitive processing, and lower their reading efficiency. The perception of capital letters of Chinese learners is found to be an isolated event and may influence the word superiority effect. English majors, who possess relatively stronger English logical thinking capability than non-English majors, face the same difficulty as the non-English majors do if no practice of capital letter reading have been done.

Selecting appropriate referential expressions is a complex task, involving perspective-taking skills and a command of available linguistic structures. This paper examines the ways in which children speaking Murrinhpatha, a traditional Australian language, introduce characters in a picture-elicited narrative. It contributes to our understanding of children’s language development through the cross-linguistic study of children’s narratives. We examined picture-elicited narratives produced by 90 Murrinhpatha-speaking children, at three different ages: 7, 9, and 11 years (n = 30 for each age group). The data were collected for the ARC-funded project Learning to tell a narrative in Murrinhpatha, in which Barb Kelly was thoroughly involved and fiercely interested. The questions we asked in the present study are the following: (1) How do Murrinhpatha-speaking children introduce characters in a narrative? and (2) Do their choices of how characters are first mentioned differ with age? Results indicate certain age-related preferences regarding the children’s use of referring expressions, but also reveal some similarities in referring practices that hold across the entire cohort, including the adults. For example, most children in all three age groups showed differential treatments of human and non-human characters, mirroring the hierarchy encoded in Murrinhpatha verbal morphology. 7-year-olds’ choices of referring expressions suggest a heightened sensitivity to this human/non-human distinction. As anticipated, the 11-year-olds pattern closest to the adults in terms of which forms they use to introduce different story characters, while numerous 9-year-olds demonstrate what appears to be a preoccupation with disambiguation. We discuss these findings with respect to ongoing questions surrounding the connections between speaker age, language, and patterns of referential choice. By approaching the data from a competence-based approach, this study crucially adds to our understandings of what Indigenous children in Australia can do with language, rather than what they supposedly cannot.

Robotics holds the potential to streamline the execution of repetitive and dangerous tasks, which are difficult or impossible for a human operator. However, in complex scenarios, such as nuclear waste management or disaster response, full automation often proves unfeasible due to the diverse and intricate nature of tasks, coupled with the unpredictable hazards, and is typically prevented by stringent regulatory frameworks. Consequently, the predominant approach to managing activities in such settings remains human teleoperation. Teleoperation can be demanding, especially in high-stress situations, and involves a complex blend of both cognitive and physical workload. We present an experiment to explore a range of physiological and performance-related metrics for workload assessment during robotic teleoperation. Thirty-five participants performed a teleoperation task, during which we manipulated cognitive and physical workload conditions. We recorded multiple metrics, including brain activity using functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, galvanic skin responses, cardiovascular responses, subjective workload ratings, task and robot performance data. Our results suggest that robotic teleoperation performance may be the most robust metric for distinguishing between different levels of workload experienced during teleoperation, with most physiological measures becoming insignificant to distinguish high cognitive workload.

This paper presents the design of a wearable robotic forearm that provides the user with an assistive third hand, along with a study of interaction scenarios for the design. Technical advances in sensors, actuators, and materials have made wearable robots feasible for personal use, but the interaction with such robots has not been sufficiently studied. We describe the development of a working prototype along with three usability studies. In an online survey we find that respondents presented with images and descriptions of the device see its use mainly as a functional tool in professional and military contexts. A subsequent contextual inquiry among building construction workers reveals three themes for user needs: extending a worker's reach, enhancing their safety and comfort through bracing and stabilization, and reducing their cognitive load in repetitive tasks. A subsequent laboratry study in which participants wear a working prototype of the robot finds that they prioritize lowered weight and enhanced dexterity, seek adjustable autonomy and transparency of the robot's intent, and prefer a robot that looks distinct from a human arm. These studies inform design implications for further development of wearable robotic arms.

Different variables, such as repetition and cognitive load, may explain the neurophysiological differences observed from one task to another in motor learning. This learning can be measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging. The aim of this systematic review was to document motor learning by functional magnetic resonance imaging during the performance of different simple or complex motor tasks in healthy subjects. The search for articles was carried out in the MEDLINE, PEDro, CINHAL and EBSCO databases in May 2020. The systematic review followed the PRISMA criteria. Nine studies were selected for a qualitative analysis. The quality of the studies ranged from 5 to 7 points on the PEDro scale. The qualitative analysis shows strong evidence that after repeating a motor task a motor learning process is generated. There is both strong and moderate evidence to show that action observation and sleep restriction are involved in motor learning. The results on sensory discrimination training were controversial. The results show, with high quality evidence, that repetition of a motor task is associated with the learning process, which seems to be related to a thickening of the motor cortex after the intervention measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging. These results are not conclusive, owing to the limiting factors of this systematic review.

This article addresses the question of how to systematically determine the degree of subjectivity expressed in a text, more specifically, the degree of subjectivity expressed in causal coherence relations. The main hypothesis is that the distribution of Dutch backward causal connectives (want, omdat, aangezien, and doordat) can be explained by the degree of subjectivity of the participant primarily involved in the causal relation (the causally primary participant or CP). The notion of subjectivity is defined on the basis of 2 different conceptions of subjectivity: speaker subjectivity and perspective. On the basis of this notion, a set of 8 text features is established, namely the CP's role in the causality, his or her nature, the mode in which his or her words or thoughts are represented, referential choice (presence and type of referential expression), and predicate features (tense, voice, polarity). This set of features is subsequently applied to an analysis of backward causal connectives in Dutch. The results of a series of corpus analyses are reported. The results show that the distribution of these connectives can successfully be explained in terms of the concept of subjectivity as developed in this article, and they underline the importance of investigating the expression of the self in text.

Accessibility defects in modern web applications often stem from human factors such as cognitive overload, insufficient training, and the difficulty of interpreting complex accessibility audit reports. In Brazil, despite the legal requirements of the Brazilian Inclusion Law (Lei Brasileira de Inclusão–LBI, Law 13.146/2015), recent studies show that less than 1of national websites comply with the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1. These gaps are not only technical but also cognitive and organizational, reflecting a persistent mismatch between detection capabilities and remediation practices. In large-scale React applications, the component-based architecture amplifies the challenge by introducing framework-specific pitfalls that require specialized expertise. This paper introduces AccessibilityAgent, a human-aware, multi-agent architecture that autonomously repairs accessibility violations using locally deployed Large Language Models (LLMs). By automating repetitive and error-prone tasks, the system reduces developers' decision fatigue and cognitive burden, while its validation agents preserve functional correctness and maintain trustworthiness. Unlike monolithic approaches, our design coordinates specialized agents for auditing, planning, retrieving, fixing, and validating repairs, enabling an adaptive workflow that integrates human oversight where necessary. We discuss how this architecture addresses human-factor-related risks in accessibility maintenance, improves software dependability, and supports inclusive design at scale.

It is inevitable that second language (L2) learners often resort to test-wiseness (TW) strategies in reading tests to obtain higher scores. Previous research has reported mixed findings on whether TW strategies enhance L2 reading performance, but such strategies are often treated as a single, undifferentiated category. The aim of this study was to categorize TW strategies into distinct types and investigate their effects on L2 reading performance. Participants were 531 Taiwanese university students who completed a Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) reading test and a TW strategy questionnaire to self-evaluate strategy use frequency. In the questionnaire, we divided TW strategies into four categories: time-using, error avoidance, deductive reasoning, and cue-using strategies. We then used Item Factor Analysis and structural equation modeling to examine the relationship between different types of TW strategies and students’ TOEIC reading scores. Results showed that error avoidance strategies were the only type with a positive effect on reading performance. While deductive reasoning strategies could provide shortcuts to potentially determine the correct answer, our results indicated that over-reliance on such strategies may negatively impact performance. The implications for L2 teaching and future research are also discussed.

In the present two experiments, we compared lying about intentions and past activities. In Experiment 1, truth tellers and liars left a building to collect a package from a specified location and deliver it somewhere else. They were interviewed about their intentions before leaving the building and about their activities after having completed the mission. Based on the concepts ‘cognitive load’, ‘episodic future thought’ (EFT), ‘avoidance strategies’ and ‘impression management’ we expected the recall of truthful intentions and past activities to be more plausible and detailed than descriptions of deceptive intentions and past activities. Participants in Experiment 2 read transcripts of these interviews. Although Experiment 1 revealed more cues to deceit in the past activities interviews (plausibility and detail) than in the intentions interviews (plausibility), participants in Experiment 2 were best at distinguishing between true and false intent.

The cognitive mechanisms underlying deception: An event-related potential study