Pollution Problems in Australia — A Large, Sparsely Populated, Rapidly Developing Country

The paper describes the hydro-electric development at Owen Falls and the economics of the scheme. The development is under the control of the Uganda Electricity Board, formed in 1948.Owen Falls is on the White Nile about 2 miles downstream from the sole outlet from Lake Victoria, the third largest lake in the world, 26 000 square miles in area. A mass-concrete gravity dam, 100ft high and 2 500ft long, has been built with a power station alongside for an ultimate plant installation of ten Kaplan turbines, each coupled to a 15 000-kW alternator. One unit commenced generating in January, 1954, and five more units are being installed progressively.In addition to power generation, the scheme is designed to provide long-term storage in Lake Victoria for the benefit of Egypt.The average rainfall on the catchment area of 103 000 square miles is 43 in, but only 7% of the run-off flows down the White Nile. Despite this, the volume of water available at Owen Falls is considerable, ranging from the minimum of 10 500 cusec to the maximum of 43 000 cusec.The capital cost of the scheme, excluding transmission, is about £12 million. The revenue of the Uganda Electricity Board has risen from £70 000 a year in 1948 when the maximum demand was 1½ MW to an anticipated £700 000 a year in 1954. It is estimated that demand will reach 90 MW in 1962. Maximum output is 700 million kWh per annum with 60% load-factor.

Analysis of Average Annual Rainfall and Average Maximum Annual Temperature for a Period of 30 years to Establish Trends in Kieni, Central Kenya

T nHE island of Pootu, like the other Chu-Shan islands, is part of the Tinghai County of CheKiang province, separated from the mainland by the sea of Chi-tou. The surface is rugged and mountainous, with ten notable peaks, not one of which rises to a thousand feet in height. The island is situated about forty miles east of the Che-Kiang coast. It is four miles long from north to south, and from one to two miles in width, about four square miles in area. The island was inhabited before the days of the Tang dynasty. In the days of the first emperor of Tang, Buddhism was introduced. Many temples were then erected, and later enlarged during the succeeding dynasties. Today it has seventy large temples and 192 small temples and shrines. In recent years, however, the temples have been deteriorating, and parts of the temple buildings are used as hostels for people who go there for the summer. In July and August, there are two direct sailings per week between Shanghai and Pootu, but for the rest of the year there are only two indirect ways of going, one by train from Shanghai to Ningpo, and the other by a steamship from Shanghai to Ningpo. Boats leave Ningpo every morning for Pootu. They make three stops on the way: Chenhai, Tinghai, and Shenchiamen (Figure 1). Between Ningpo and Chenhai, the Yungkiang is bordered on both sides by hundreds of ice-houses (Figure 2). Farmers gather ice from fresh water ponds during the winter months and store it up in straw roofed huts thickly covered over by vines. The ice is sold to fishermen in Tinghai for fish storage during the summer season. Each icehouse is worth about fivehundred dollars on an average. Between Chenhai and Tinghai are many islands which rise sharply out of the water and give the effect of recent

Reviewed by: A Mission under Duress: The Nanjing Massacre and Post-Massacre Social Conditions Documented by American Diplomats by Suping Lu, and: A Dark Page in History: The Nanjing Massacre and Post-Massacre Social Conditions Recorded in British Diplomatic Dispatches, Admiralty Documents, and U.S. Naval Intelligence Reports by Suping Lu Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi (bio) Suping Lu. A Mission under Duress: The Nanjing Massacre and Post-Massacre Social Conditions Documented by American Diplomats. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2010. xxx, 364 pp. Hardcover $90.00, isbn 978-0-7618-5149-3. Paperback $54.99, isbn 978-0-7618-5150-9. Suping Lu. A Dark Page in History: The Nanjing Massacre and Post-Massacre Social Conditions Recorded in British Diplomatic Dispatches, Admiralty Documents, and U.S. Naval Intelligence Reports. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2012. xxx, 210 pp. Hardcover $69.99, isbn 978-0-7618-5881-2. In February 2014, the People’s National Congress, the top legislative organ in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), made December 13 a statutory “National Day of Mourning” to commemorate victims of the Nanjing Massacre in 1937. Given the highly contentious and emotionally charged disputes that surround this historical event—as well as the ethnic and political wounds that still fester today, seventy-eight years later—it is best that I state my own interpretation here briefly in order to avoid misunderstanding. Based on Japanese military records and secondary scholarship, I contend that the Nanjing Massacre comprised mass murder, rape, arson, plunder, air raids on civilians, and the abduction of labor, for both manual and sexual purposes, by Japanese troops from early December 1937 to early March 1938, both inside the walled city and, more important, in its six adjacent counties, where most of the killing occurred. Within those temporal and spatial contours—and the Tokyo war crimes tribunal delineated the event as occurring in Nanjing “and its vicinity”—victims totaled over 100,000 but fell far short of 200,000, while rapes numbered in the thousands. Beyond these vague levels, however, quantitative precision is unattainable at our present stage of research.1 In sum, the Nanjing Massacre is undeniable in fact, but its scale, its causes, its legal and moral ambiguities, and many other key issues are open to honest scholarly debate anchored in empirical evidence. Suping Lu has published four books that enlarge that store of empirical evidence. He deserves our praise and thanks for scouring the globe to collect primary sources—the kind of grunt work that too many of us avoid or even disdain. A native of the PRC, Lu attended and taught at Nanjing Teachers University, the successor to Ginling (Jinling) College, where part of the massacre occurred. He fondly relates his attachment to the school and his esteem for Minnie Vautrin, a missionary-educator there who, at great personal risk, saved women from rape and murder at the hands of the Japanese. Lu’s first book was They Were in Nanjing (2004).2 In it, he wove a historical narrative linked by quotations from English-language sources such as letters, memos, and diaries composed by long-time Western residents of Nanjing, together with news reports dispatched by foreign [End Page 125] journalists. Lu’s second book, Terror in Minnie Vautrin’s Nanjing (2008), comprised a selection of letters and diary entries left by one such resident, Vautrin.3 Lu is wrong to call these residents “eyewitnesses” and all of their writings “first-hand” accounts, for they did not directly see all the atrocities they described. Textual critique, the skeptical analysis of source materials, is crucial in weighing their evidentiary value for reconstructing past events. True enough, these Westerners were in Nanjing during the massacre, but they were restricted to the Safety Zone measuring “about two square miles in area” (Dark Page, p. 39), as measured by one resident, which covers just one-eighth of the city. Thus, they could see little outside this area, and in Vautrin’s case, little beyond her campus, and so they relied heavily on hearsay to formulate their accounts. The most prolific chroniclers of the massacre, apart from businessman John Rabe, were missionaries, teachers, and doctors fondly attached to their...

Summary Palaeogeography rests in a well-founded stratigraphy. Rigidly defined palaeontological zones are of very limited use in neritic rocks, and their criteria must be relaxed and adapted to changing fossil associations to meet the needs of wide-ranging regional studies: in particular, Vaughan’s scheme, though the most convenient, is applicable in only a general sense to the several Lower Carboniferous provinces. The earliest known Carboniferous fossils of much of midland and northern England, though hitherto considered to characterize the Zaphrentis and Lower Caninia zones, do not give evidence of any rocks older than Viséan; and except perhaps in the Craven Lowlands the Tournaisian stage is not certainly known to occur outside the South-Western Province (and its continuation in southern Ireland). Viséan transgression was a major diastrophic episode in Dinantian times. The residual Tournaisian sediments are generally uniform in lithology (though not in thickness) and provide little direct evidence of contemporary shorelines. The Lower Limestone Shales mark a northward overlap of marine Devonian rock-types continued into Carboniferous times. The succeeding Main Limestone was deposited in an east-and-west facies belt, but now gives few clues to contemporary land-masses. The Tournaisian Culm is Piltonian— a mud-zone sediment that accumulated under conditions not unlike those of the Lower Limestone Shales. St. George's Land is well defined both by facies changes and by marginal unconformities in the Viséan rocks of the South-Western Province, and its shorelines are locally precisely recognizable. Its northern margin is even more clearly defined in the Dibunophyllum Zone of North Wales, and can be followed eastwards as a virtually continuous shore. The Viséan rocks of Ireland provide a complete range of depositional zones from Culm in the south to coarse pebble beds bordering the mainland in the north. Marginal delta beds are strongly developed from Mayo to Antrim, showing progressive diachronism to higher horizons as they are followed north-eastwards. Southwards they pass laterally into shelf lime-stones of a great variety of kinds deposited in clearer waters off-shore, the transition in early Viséan times approximately coinciding with the structural line of the Highland Boundary fault-belt and the Ox Anticline. The lime-stones include thick Waulsortian sheet reefs in the lower part, probably covering intermittently several thousand square miles in area. At higher horizons shoal and patch reefs are common and widespread in host sediments of thick bioclastic limestones. The Viséan cuvette in Ireland extended unbrokenly eastwards into the Central Province of England, where thick limestones and shales provide clear indications of southern and northern margins; and, divided by the Manx–Cumbrian–Pennine barrier, north-eastwards into the Northumbrian trough of estuarine and deltaic sediments. The drowning of a northern mainland coast to allow extension of the Irish calciferous sandstones into Scotland was not complete probably until mid-Viséan times. In the Midland Valley the deposition of a variety of kinds of semi-marine and “ continental “ deposits was controlled by locally powerful vulcanicity, by minor upwarps, and by the persistently revived major island or peninsula of the Southern Uplands—a barrier that continued to be effective until the close of Lower Carboniferous times even after the regional subsidence marked by the Iate-Viséan Hurlet transgression.

Publication Rights Reserved The Atlantic Coastal Plain and Continental Shelf of North America is represented by a belt of Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks, 150 to 300 miles wide and 2,400 miles long, extending from southern Florida to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland (fig. 1). This belt encompasses an area of about 400,000 to 450,000square miles, more than three-fourths of which is covered to depths of 600 feet by the Atlantic Ocean. The volume of Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks beneath the Atlantic Coastal Plain and Continental Shelf exceeds 450,000cubic miles, perhaps by a considerable amount. More than one-half of this is seaward far enough to contain marine source rocks in sufficient proportion to attract exploration for oil. A larger fraction, perhaps three-quarters of the volume, may be of interest in exploration for gas. The Coastal Plain consists of an area of more than 100,000 square miles between the crystalline piedmont of the Appalachian System and mean low-tide from southern Florida to the tip of Long Island plus a few small offshore islands and the Cape Cod Peninsula. The Continental Shelf extends from mean low-tide to the break marking the beginning of the continental rise, which is somewhat less than 600 feet in depth at most places. It is a gently sloping platform, about 350,000 square miles in area, that widens from less than 3 miles off southern Florida to about 285 miles off Newfoundland. The Blake Plateau occupies an area of about 70,000 square miles between the 500-foot and 5,000-foot bottom contours from the Cape Hatteras vicinity to the northernmost bank of the Bahamas. It has a gentle slope with only minor irregularities and scattered patches of Recent sediments. Both gravity and magnetic anomalies along the Atlantic Coast reflect primarily compositional differences at considerable depths in the earth's crust, but are related to some extent to the structure and composition of the Coastal Plain sedimentary rocks and shallow basement. Four alternating belts of predominantly positive and predominantly negative Bouguer gravity anomalies extend diagonally across the region from southwest to northeast (as shown on the Bouguer Anomaly Map of the United States, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1964). These correspond roughly with the continental rise and slope, the Continental Shelf and Coastal Plain, the Appalachian Mountain System front, and the Piedmont Plateau-Blue Ridge-Appalachian Basin region.

The Island of Guam, westernmost U.S. possession, is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands. It is approximately 212 square miles in area and is located 130 28" N. latitude, 1440 E. longitude. Of the approximately 100,000 Americans in Guam, roughly half are native Guamanians. A "typical" North American community complete with traffic jams and television, the Island boasts approximately 25,000 school children, two modern hospitals, as well as numerous medical clinics and private physicians. Under Spanish rule from 1565 to 1898, when it was ceded to the United States following the Spanish-American War, Guam has lost most of its pre-Spanish culture. The art of using plants for medicine (Chamorro-amot) is one of the few indigenous cultural habits surviving. Padre Sanvitores, arriving in 1668 as one of the first priests in Guam, stated, in reference to the use of herbs to treat illness: "Since they have few ailments, they know few medicines and treat themselves with few herbs, of which experience and necessity have taught them the uses and virtues." (4.197). Probably many of the plants now used for medicine have been introduced since then. Both natural and supernatural illnesses were treated (1,2,3,4). There was a sorcerer class, Mahkana, later called Kakahna, which apparently possessed the power of both causing and curing illness. This power was thought to be passed on to their children. Thompson, writing in 1947, stated: "Under the pressure from the American administration, the Kakahna have practically disappeared." (4.197). However, the natural illness healers are practicing today in many of the villages. These herb doctors, called suruhanas

Ghawar field is located about 50 miles inland from the western shore of the Persian Gulf, in Hasa Province, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The field was discovered in 1948 by a wildcat well at Ain Dar. Other wildcats, Haradh (1949), ’Uthmaniyah (1951), and Shedgum (1952) proved to be on subsidiary closures of the same great anticline, and parts of the same oil field. Oil-finding has been primarily through structure drilling, although surface mapping furnished initial clues and gravity mapping proved helpful. The oil field is a structural accumulation along at least 140 miles of the north-south-trending En Nala anticlinal axis. The fold is simple in the south, develops two low marginal crestal closures in the center, and is subdivided into two adjacent anticlines in the north. Seven crestal closures have been found, but oil appears to be continuous from Ain Dar to Haradh. Ghawar oil is Upper Jurassic, occurring in the shallow-water carbonate sediments of the upper Jubaila and lower Arab formations. It is confined above by the lowest of the three anhydrite members of the Arab formation. Only minor shows of oil have been found in higher parts of the Arab. The most prolific production is derived from calcarenites in which much original pore space survives. Other rocks making up the reservoir are fine-grained limestone, calcarenitic limestone, dolomitic limestone, and dolomite. Partial dolomitization, usually porphyroblastic, is extensive. The oil accumulation, conservatively estimated at 875 square miles in area, has a maximum vertical oil column of about 1,300 feet. Gravities range from 36° API in the north to 33° API in the south. The crude is undersaturated, with saturation pressures decreasing to the south. The oil-water contact rises to the south. The reservoir water ranges from 240,000 ppm total solids in the north to 38,000 ppm in the south. On the west side of the structure elevations of the contact are higher and salinities of the water are lower than on the east. Incipient growth of the Ghawar structure apparently started in the Lower Cretaceous but the structure in its present form first became apparent in truncation at an unconformity between the early and late Upper Cretaceous (roughly post-Cenomanian and pre-Maastrichtian). Growth continued into the middle Eocene with minor disturbances possibly continuing to the Miocene. No fundamental structural disturbance, except perhaps regional tilting, seems to have taken place during and after Miocene time. The source of Ghawar oil apparently is in the Arab and Jubaila formations. The oil volume forces an assumption of substantial lateral migration. Temporary accumulation of the oil in a stratigraphic trap prior to its localization in the present oil field is the preferred hypothesis.

The chief title to interest possessed by the Carlisle earthquakes of 1901 is the light which they throw upon the structure of the region underlying the Lake District and the North of Cumberland —a structure which must clearly be very different from that manifested by the surface-rocks. The shocks were at least four in number. The first and strongest occurred on July 9th, at 4.23 p.m.; the second about three minutes later; the third on the same day at 4.45 p.m.; and the fourth on July 11th at about 11.10 p.m. In addition, there are records of four other shocks, depending on the authority of single observers. These are as follows:— July 9th, about 3 p.m.: Loweswater. A slight shock. July 10th, about 1.30 a.m.: Crosthwaite (near Keswick). A slight shock without sound. July 12th, about 2 a.m.: Crosthwaite. The same. July 14th, about 11 p.m.: Crosthwaite. The same. a. July 9th , 4.23 P.M. Intensity, 5 centre of isoseismal 5, 1at. 54° 47·8' N., long. 3° 0·4' W. Number of records 267, from 155 places; and negative records fi'om 50 places. Isoseismallines and disturbed area.—The two continuous curves in the map (p.372) refer to this earthquake. The isoseismal 5 is very nearly a circle, 29 miles in diameter, and 660 square miles in area. Its centre is situated at a point 7 miles south-south-west of Carlisle. The isoseismal 4 is an

Chapter 3. The Response of Mangroves to Man-Induced Environmental Stress

This paper presents a methodology of determining the air pollution potential based on pollutant source identification and meteorological parameters, using as a case study the Isfahan Province in Iran. First, taking the county as the evaluation unit, the regional air pollution information system database of Isfahan Province was established, supported by Geographic Information Systems. Then, the air pollution potential of the study area was assessed based on the analysis of regional air pollution, review of available literature, seeking advice from experts, and using determining factors such as population density, traffic, industries, wind speed, precipitation, temperature and humidity. A layer for each factor was prepared in GIS. After data acquisition, criteria were set and weighted by experts. Finally, all criteria were integrated using the Weighted Linear Combination method to obtain the spatial distribution of air pollution potential. The results showed that 55 % of the total land area in Isfahan Province maintains a high to moderate level of air pollution potential resulting from unsuitable meteorological conditions along with high density of emissions from human activities. However, winds counteract the serious air pollution in some parts. The results suggest that very strict air quality management is needed in days of low wind speed, especially at places of increased air pollution resulting from human activities.

Abstract. There is increasing concern in southern Africa about the possible decline of rainfall as a result of global warming. Some studies concluded that average rainfall in Zimbabwe had declined by 10% or 100 mm during the last 100 years. This paper investigates the validity of the assumption that rainfall is declining in Zimbabwe. Time series of annual rainfall, and total rainfall for (a) the early part of the rainy season, October-November-December (OND), and (b) the mid to end of the rainy season, January-February-March (JFM) are analysed for the presence of trends using the Mann-Kendall test, and for the decline or increase during years with either high or low rainfall using quantile regression analysis. The Pettitt test has also been utilized to examine the possible existence of change or break-points in the rainfall time series. The analysis has been done for 40 rainfall stations with records starting during the 1892–1940 period and ending in 2000, and representative of all the rainfall regions. The Mann-Kendal test did not identify a significant trend at all the 40 stations, and therefore there is no proof that the average rainfall at each of these stations has changed. Quantile regression analysis revealed a decline in annual rainfall less than the tenth percentile at only one station, and increasing of rainfall greater than the ninetieth percentile at another station. All the other stations had no changes over time in both the low and high rainfall at the annual interval. Climate change effects are therefore not yet statistically significant within time series of total seasonal and annual rainfall in Zimbabwe. The general perception about declining rainfall is likely due to the presence of multidecadal variability characterized by bunching of years with above (e.g. 1951–1958, 1973–1980) and below (e.g. 1959–1972, 1982–1994 ) average rainfall.

Istanbul has faced serious air pollution problems since the mid-80s. This is mainly due to particulate air pollution coming from poor quality lignite in areas, which are heavily populated and industrialized. As a consequence of severe air pollution problems, stringent control on the emissions in the city started in the year of 1994. In this work, in order to study the relationship between emissions and meteorological conditions, an assessment of air pollution episodes and air pollution potential in the city is presented for the terms at the changed emission schedule as the influence of an emission reduction strategy. The influence of meteorological conditions on the TSP (total suspended particulates) levels is considered for two consecutive winter periods. On this occasion, the city has faced different TSP levels and episode characteristics depending on stringent emission reductions covering the banned, poor-quality lignite and fuel switching. For this purpose, climatological conditions and air quality analyses were performed.

The industrial policies of developing countries mainly focusing on the pursuit of economic growth with inadequate importance given to environmental pollution issues has resulted in rapid degradation of the natural environment. As the ambience has a dilution limit, industries that have been emitting air pollutants within the permissible pollution norms also contribute their share towards overall environmental degradation. Expressing permissible limits of pollution parameters on the dichotomous scale (Yes/No) needs a paradigm shift from crisp (Permissible OR Not Permissible) to fuzzy values (Permissible AND Not Permissible). A fresh look at the pollution control strategies is, therefore, necessary. An attempt has been made to address this problem and a new formalism of integrated effects of air pollutants is proposed for industries based on their air emissions. Vagueness in the perception of environmental experts for evaluating the techno-scientific parameters in linguistic terms for specific usage, coupled with imprecision in parametric data calls for the application of fuzzy modelling. In this study, importance is given to each air pollutant and a composite index is developed, which can reflect the air pollution potential of an industry. The study also reflects a case study of stringent environmental standards reflecting the rise in the pollution potential of industries. This can be linked to policy framing based on the principle of the polluter paying to control the pollution levels in the environment. The case study relates to the application of Fuzzy Multi Criteria Decision Making (FMCDM) for ranking the industries located in the State of Gujarat, India. The feasibility of the approach for ranking industries based on their air pollution potential is also discussed.

Air pollutants may cause severe respiratory problems in the children during their developmental stages. In this study, the respiratory health of school children belonging to three different localities namely industrial, commercial and residential areas of Delhi City was assessed by questionnaire survey and lung function test. The outdoor air pollution data from the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) stations was used for the study, which were located within 1-km distance from the selected school sites. Indoor air quality monitoring has also been done at classrooms for particulate matter (PM10), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Indoor and outdoor PM10 concentration at schools in commercial area (815 ± 354.45 and 337 ± 85 μg/m3) was ten times above the NAAQM limits of 100 μg/m3. PM10 concentration was lower in industrial (694.6 ± 322.9 and 274 ± 78 μg/m3) and residential (534.3 ± 94.22 and 197 ± 48 μg/m3) areas. However, levels of SO2 and NO2 were under the permissible limits. The findings also revealed that the children living in the commercial area had higher respiratory symptoms as compared to industrial and residential areas. The respiratory symptoms were found to have a statistically significant positive association with PM10 levels in the air.