Preface

The universe of cell biology is expanding. One way to sense this expansion is to attend a major meeting dedicated to the field, such as that of the American Society for Cell Biology. The poster sessions allow one to take a leisurely stroll through the exhibits and, even without stopping to look at any single poster, get a very good visceral feel for the scope of cell biology. For those who have taken such a stroll periodically over the past decade or two, the dynamic nature of cell biology and its explosive growth have been obvious—there is simply more and more about more and more. Once upon a time, poster sessions were dominated by images of cells fixed (literally) and captured in black and white by electron microscopists. While the electron microscope continues to contribute to our understanding of cell architecture, more recent poster sessions have witnessed the emergence of row upon row of television monitors where one can view computer-enhanced video images of living cells captured in the not-so-living colors of rhodamine red, fluorescein yellow, and the characteristic green that gives the now-famous fluorescent protein its name. Freeze-etching has been joined by freeze-frame. Furthermore, interspersed among the television sets and whirring VCRs are posters that document detailed molecular characterizations of a vast array of biochemical components that comprise the diverse cell types being investigated. Other posters record the latest genes to fall to the seemingly relentless onslaught of the cloners and sequencers, and still others offer functional insights obtained by knocking out these genes. Every point of the compass has its blot! Genetic studies in yeast, flies, and worms abound on the one hand, and on the other, a growing number of the presentations form bridges between basic research in cell biology and the practice of clinical medicine. Clearly, the scientists who today identify themselves as cell biologists are a diverse community, and great value resides in that diversity. Borders that once separated research disciplines have faded, and cell biologists have come to appreciate that no single approach in isolation will open the profound mysteries of the cell. New techniques and new technologies come alongside the tried-and-true as the tools of cell biology expand along with the field. It is this changing face of cell biology and its methodologies that represented the greatest challenge in pulling together Current Protocols in Cell Biology. A foundational question addressed by the editors of this work involved where to draw the boundaries around the field of cell biology. Our decision has been to refuse to draw such boundaries—they are artificial at best and counterproductive at worst. Instead, we will attempt in this effort to match the diversity of our field. We will include “classic” methods that remain valuable tools for the modern cell biologist and will also provide protocols that we believe are destined to become tomorrow's classics. There is no reason to suspect that the expanding universe of cell biology will cease expanding anytime soon. Indeed, part of the thrill of being a cell biologist is being constantly surprised by new innovations and discoveries. As a consequence, however, our community needs a reliable and user-friendly source of laboratory methods that is as expansive as the field itself. To begin to address this need, we have assembled a series of protocols that cover many aspects of cell biology. While this set of methods is incomplete, it can be considered a “starter toolbox” that includes many of the most versatile and essential instruments of our trade. This collection will expand as regular quarterly supplements are added to Current Protocols in Cell Biology. Through these supplements, the editors will endeavor to make the toolbox increasingly more useful over time. Because of the rapid pace of innovation and discovery in cell biology, we are expecting that our efforts will be met with some degree of very pleasant frustration as we strive to keep up with this fast-moving and exciting field. Subjects in this manual are organized by chapters, and protocols are contained in units. Protocol units, which constitute the bulk of the book, generally describe a method and include one or more protocols with listings of materials, steps and annotations, recipes for unique reagents and solutions, and commentaries on the “hows” and “whys” of the method. Other units present more general information in the form of explanatory text with no protocols. Overview units contain theoretical discussions that lay the foundation for subsequent protocols. Other discussion units present more general information. Page numbering reflects the modular arrangement by unit; for example, page 1.2.3 refers to Chapter 1 (Cell Culture), UNIT Unavailable (Media for Culture of Mammalian Cells), page 3 of that particular unit. Many reagents and procedures are employed repeatedly throughout the manual. Instead of duplicating this information, cross-references among units are used and recipes for common reagents are supplied in APPENDIX Unavailable. Cross-referencing helps to ensure that lengthy and complex protocols are not overburdened with steps describing auxiliary procedures needed to prepare raw materials and analyze results. Because this publication is first and foremost a compilation of laboratory techniques in cell biology, we have included explanatory information where required to help readers gain an intuitive grasp of the procedures. Some chapters begin with special overview units that describe the state of the art of the topic matter and provide a context for the procedures that follow. Chapter and unit introductions describe how the protocols that follow connect to one another, and annotations to the actual protocol steps describe what is happening as a procedure is carried out. Finally, the Commentary that closes each protocol unit describes background information regarding the historical and theoretical development of the method, as well as alternative approaches, critical parameters, troubleshooting guidelines, anticipated results, and time considerations. All units contain cited references and many indicate key references to inform users of particularly useful background reading, original descriptions, or applications of a technique. Many units in the manual contain groups of protocols, each presented with a series of steps. One or more basic protocols are presented first in each unit and generally cover the recommended or most universally applicable approaches. Alternate protocols are provided where different equipment or reagents can be employed to achieve similar ends, where the starting material requires a variation in approach, or where requirements for the end product differ from those in the basic protocol. Support protocols describe additional steps that are required to perform the basic or alternate protocols; these steps are separated from the core protocol because they might be applicable to other uses in the manual, or because they are performed in a time frame separate from the basic protocol steps. Reagents required for a protocol are itemized in the materials list before the procedure begins. Many are common stock solutions, others are commonly used buffers or media, while others are solutions unique to a particular protocol. Recipes for the latter solutions are provided in each unit, following the protocols (and before the commentary) under the heading Reagents and Solutions. It is important to note that the names of some of these special solutions might be similar from unit to unit (e.g., RIPA buffer) while the recipes differ; thus, make certain that reagents are prepared from the proper recipes. On the other hand, recipes for commonly used stock solutions and buffers are provided once in APPENDIX Unavailable. These universal recipes are cross-referenced parenthetically in the materials lists rather than repeated with every usage. Throughout the manual, we have recommended commercial suppliers of chemicals, biological materials, and equipment. In some cases, the noted brand has been found to be of superior quality or it is the only suitable product available in the marketplace. In other cases, the experience of the author of that protocol is limited to that brand. In the latter situation, recommendations are offered as an aid to the novice in obtaining the tools of the trade. Experienced investigators are therefore encouraged to experiment with substituting their own favorite brands. Anyone carrying out these protocols may encounter the following hazardous or potentially hazardous materials: (1) radioactive substances, (2) toxic chemicals and carcinogenic or teratogenic reagents, and (3) pathogenic and infectious biological agents. Check the guidelines of your particular institution with regard to use and disposal of these hazardous materials. Although cautionary statements are included in the appropriate units, we emphasize that users must proceed with the prudence and precaution associated with good laboratory practice, and that all materials must be used in strict accordance with local and national regulations. Many protocols call for use of live animals (usually rats or mice) for experiments. Prior to conducting any laboratory procedures with live subjects, the experimental approach must be submitted in writing to the appropriate Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) or must conform to appropriate governmental regulations regarding the care and use of laboratory animals. Written approval from the IACUC (or equivalent) committee is absolutely required prior to undertaking any live-animal studies. Some specific animal care and handling guidelines are provided in the protocols where live subjects are used, but check with your IACUC or governmental guidelines to obtain more extensive information. Most of the protocols included in this manual are used routinely in the authors' laboratories. These protocols work for them; to make them work for you they have annotated critical steps and included critical parameters and troubleshooting guides in the commentaries to most units. However, the successful evolution of this manual depends upon readers' observations and suggestions. We encourage readers to send their comments to currentprotocols@wiley.com. Another valuable resource is the companion website http://www.currentprotocols.com. This site features tools, calculators, apps, troubleshooting tips, webinars, and videos to assist in the experiments presented in this manual. The individual article pages provide valuable summary information and easy access to the content. While the editorial board enlists contributors for most of the topics presented in this manual, we invite individuals to submit letters of intent describing new topics that they would like to publish in CPCB. The editorial board will carefully consider suggested topics and invite authors to submit full manuscripts in some cases. Letters of intent may be submitted by email to currentprotocols@wiley.com. This manual is the product of dedicated efforts by many of our scientific colleagues who are acknowledged in each unit and by the hard work by the Current Protocols editorial staff at John Wiley and Sons. We are extremely grateful for the critical contributions by Kathy Morgan (Series Editor) who kept the editors and the contributors on track and played a key role in bringing the entire project to completion. Other skilled members of the Current Protocols staff who contributed to the project include Joseph White, Janet Blair, Kathy Wisch, Michael Gates, Demetra Kagdis, Alice Ro, and Scott Holmes. The extensive copyediting required to produce an accurate protocols manual was ably handled by Rebecca Barr, Allen Ranz, Elizabeth Harkins, Lisa Christenson, Connie Parks, Karen Hopkin, Monte Kendrick, and Cathy Lundmark, and electronic illustrations were prepared by Gae Xavier Studios. A basic introductory cell biology text written by the authors of Molecular Biology of the Cell. Two comprehensive and lucid textbooks that convey effectively the synergistic convergence of biochemistry, genetics, structural biology, and traditional cell biology to form modern molecular and cell biology.

With the increasing affordability and accessibility of genome sequencing data, de novo genome assembly is an important first step to a wide variety of downstream studies and analyses. Therefore, bioinformatics tools that enable the generation of high-quality genome assemblies in a computationally efficient manner are essential. Recent developments in long-read sequencing technologies have greatly benefited genome assembly work, including scaffolding, by providing long-range evidence that can aid in resolving the challenging repetitive regions of complex genomes. ntLink is a flexible and resource-efficient genome scaffolding tool that utilizes long-read sequencing data to improve upon draft genome assemblies built from any sequencing technologies, including the same long reads. Instead of using read alignments to identify candidate joins, ntLink utilizes minimizer-based mappings to infer how input sequences should be ordered and oriented into scaffolds. Recent improvements to ntLink have added important features such as overlap detection, gap-filling, and in-code scaffolding iterations. Here, we present three basic protocols demonstrating how to use each of these new features to yield highly contiguous genome assemblies, while still maintaining ntLink's proven computational efficiency. Further, as we illustrate in the alternate protocols, the lightweight minimizer-based mappings that enable ntLink scaffolding can also be utilized for other downstream applications, such as misassembly detection. With its modularity and multiple modes of execution, ntLink has broad benefit to the genomics community, from genome scaffolding and beyond. ntLink is an open-source project and is freely available from https://github.com/bcgsc/ntLink. © 2023 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: ntLink scaffolding using overlap detection Basic Protocol 2: ntLink scaffolding with gap-filling Basic Protocol 3: Running in-code iterations of ntLink scaffolding Alternate Protocol 1: Generating long-read to contig mappings with ntLink Alternate Protocol 2: Using ntLink mappings for genome assembly correction with Tigmint-long Support Protocol: Installing ntLink.

Protein reagents are indispensable for most molecular and synthetic biology procedures. Most conventional protocols rely on highly purified protein reagents that require considerable expertise, time, and infrastructure to produce. In consequence, most proteins are acquired from commercial sources, reagent expense is often high, and accessibility may be hampered by shipping delays, customs barriers, geopolitical constraints, and the need for a constant cold chain. Such limitations to the widespread availability of protein reagents, in turn, limit the expansion and adoption of molecular biology methods in research, education, and technology development and application. Here, we describe protocols for producing a low-resource and locally sustainable reagent delivery system, termed "cellular reagents," in which bacteria engineered to overexpress proteins of interest are dried and can then be used directly as reagent packets in numerous molecular biology reactions, without the need for protein purification or a constant cold chain. As an example of their application, we describe the execution of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) using cellular reagents, detailing how to replace pure protein reagents with optimal amounts of rehydrated cellular reagents. We additionally describe a do-it-yourself fluorescence visualization device for using these cellular reagents in common molecular biology applications. The methods presented in this article can be used for low-cost, on-site production of commonly used molecular biology reagents (including DNA and RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, and ligases) with minimal instrumentation and expertise, and without the need for protein purification. Consequently, these methods should generally make molecular biology reagents more affordable and accessible. © 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Preparation of cellular reagents Alternate Protocol 1: Preparation of lyophilized cellular reagents Alternate Protocol 2: Evaluation of bacterial culture growth via comparison to McFarland turbidity standards Support Protocol 1: SDS-PAGE for protein expression analysis of cellular reagents Basic Protocol 2: Using Taq DNA polymerase cellular reagents for PCR Basic Protocol 3: Using Br512 DNA polymerase cellular reagents for loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) Support Protocol 2: Building a fluorescence visualization device.

Reviewed by: Heredity under the Microscope: Chromosomes and the Study of the Human Genome by Soraya de Chadarevian Miguel García-Sancho Soraya de Chadarevian. Heredity under the Microscope: Chromosomes and the Study of the Human Genome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2020. 272 pp. Ill. $37.50 (978-0-226-68511-3). In Heredity under the Microscope, Soraya de Chadarevian complements the picture of post-World War II biomedicine that she uncovered in her previous book, Designs for Life: Molecular Biology after World War II.1 Unlike in her earlier monograph, here she focuses on chromosomes as spaces of convergence of several lines of inquiry. This focus on research objects rather than disciplinary developments leads her to investigate a variety of practices that life scientists deployed to visualize and [End Page 466] interpret human chromosomes. The diversity of disciplinary backgrounds of these scientists and the multiplicity of uses to which their chromosome practices were put enable the author to expand the historiographical boundaries of both molecular biology and genetics research. Firstly, de Chadarevian disentangles “the study of postwar human heredity from the predominant concern about continuities with eugenic practices” (p. 5). The book does not limit itself to documenting the invention of karyotyping techniques to represent and detect anomalies in human chromosomes; it follows their standardization and spread, including their use as evidence of safe levels of radiation in the workplace (chapter 1) or sex assignment in the Olympic games (chapter 3). The emphasis on these uses, departed as they were from scientific theories about population improvement, displaces eugenics as the dominant interpretative framework of the history of human genetics. Secondly, the book presents chromosomes as showing “historical commonalities” (p. 177) between two approaches that have been traditionally considered as separate: molecular genetics and microscope-assisted chromosome observations. De Chadarevian stresses how these two approaches emerged as a consequence of the key role that nuclear research had played during World War II and the search of peacetime applications. Radioactive isotopes decisively fostered molecular biology, while the investigation of the effects of radiation was a crucial concern of human and medical geneticists using chromosome observations (chapter 1). Both molecular biologists and chromosome researchers also attempted to apply computers to their investigations, the former as an aid to the structural study of proteins and DNA, and the latter to automate the interpretation of karyotype images (chapter 4). However, whereas molecular biologists focused on simpler organisms, chromosome researchers engaged with both human populations and patients in the clinic. Radiation-induced leukemia was their first focus for then rapidly shifting to other conditions (especially those affecting mental abilities and sex identity) and larger-scale epidemiological studies (chapters 2 and 4). The 1960s, a decade that historians have dubbed the golden age of molecular biology,2 was also a time of expansion of chromosome observations. From the mid-1970s onward, molecular biologists turned to human subjects in order to realize the medical promise of the new recombinant DNA techniques. It is at this point when the intersection with chromosome research becomes more visible and de Chadarevian wonders “whose turn” this represents in history, a molecularization of human genetics or a humanization of molecular biology (pp. 171–76). Although subsequent success stories have put the emphasis on molecular biology, chapter 5 shows the importance of chromosome research as a key tool for gene mapping and the emergence of the human genome as an object of study. Even in the so-called post-genomic era, chromosome observations are [End Page 467] essential to clinically interpret the molecular sequence data derived from the Human Genome Project. Overall, the book offers a most welcomed framework to address the coexistence of chromosome observations and molecular biology, and their importance in genomics research. Understanding this is a pressing historiographical problem, given the dominance of molecular biologists in existing narratives and the apparent revival of chromosome research. There is yet still work to do in exploring specific overlaps between the visual and molecular approaches to the genome. A potential candidate is Victor McKusick, a main actor in de Chadarevian’s account and a co-author of the article in which Celera Genomics presented one of the draft sequences of the human...

Book Reviews

Objective Biological Chemistry keeps you up-to-date with all new developments in the molecular life sciences. In addition to original research reports, authoritative reviews written by leading researchers in the field keep you informed about the latest advances in the molecular life sciences. Rapid, yet rigorous reviewing ensures fast access to recent research results of exceptional significance in the biological sciences. Topics general biochemistry pathobiochemistry structural biology molecular and cellular biology genetics and epigenetics molecular medicine cancer research virology immunology plant molecular biology and biochemistry novel experimental methodologies Article formats Research Articles, Short Communications, Reviews and Minireviews Reviews are published by invitation only, but suggestions to the Editor-in-Chief are welcome. The journal is associated with the German Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (GBM).

The purification and concentration of nucleic acids have become routine procedures in most biology and molecular biology laboratories. This unit covers the basic principles and procedures for the isolation, purification, and manipulation of solutions of DNA or RNA. The basic DNA protocol, using phenol extraction and ethanol precipitation, is appropriate for the purification of DNA from small volumes (<0.4 ml) at concentrations ≤1 mg/ml. Purification of DNA using commercially available silica membrane spin columns is presented as an alternate protocol. Isolation and purification of RNA from mammalian cells or tissues is also examined. Use of the protein denaturant guanidine thiocyanate and water‐saturated phenol, followed by concentration by isopropanol precipitation, for producing small samples of RNA, is illustrated in the basic RNA protocol. Curr. Protoc. Essential Lab. Tech. 6:5.2.1‐5.2.21. © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Basophils represent the rarest type of granulocyte in human peripheral blood. Thus, researching basophils has historically been challenging and has often been reliant on enrichment protocols using density gradient centrifugation. This article describes a novel, fast, and cost-effective method to purify highly viable human basophils from peripheral blood through negative immunomagnetic selection, foregoing the density centrifugation step in the Basic Protocol. The technique is easy to use and consistently produces purities >96%. Furthermore, the Support Protocols describe procedures to determine basophil yield, purity, and viability, and how to investigate functional activity of the purified basophils through flow cytometry and visualize the basophils through microscopy. © 2024 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol: Gradient centrifugation-independent basophil isolation Support Protocol 1: Flow cytometry staining to assess basophil yield, purity, and viability Support Protocol 2: Giemsa staining Support Protocol 3: Calcium flux analysis Support Protocol 4: Basophil activation test.

Physical maps showing the relative locations of cloned DNA fragments in the genome are important resources for research in molecular genetics, genome analysis, and evolutionary biology. In addition to affording a common frame of reference for organizing diverse types of genetic data, physical maps also provide ready access to clones containing DNA sequences from any defined region of the genome. In this paper, we present a physical map of the genome of Drosophila melanogaster based on in situ hybridization with 2461 DNA fragments, averaging approximately 80 kilobase pairs each, cloned in bacteriophage P1. The map is a framework map in the sense that most putative overlaps between clones have not yet been demonstrated at the molecular level. Nevertheless, the framework map includes approximately 85% of all genes in the euchromatic genome. A continuous physical map composed of sets of overlapping P1 clones (contigs), which together span most of the euchromatic genome, is currently being assembled by screening a library of 9216 P1 clones with single-copy genetic markers as well as with the ends of the P1 clones already assigned positions in the framework map. Because most P1 clones from D. melanogaster hybridize in situ with chromosomes from related species, the framework map also makes it possible to determine the genome maps of D. pseudoobscura and other species in the subgenus Sophophora. Likewise, a P1 framework map of D. virilis affords potential access to genome organization and evolution in the subgenus Drosophila.

In the beginning was the worm: Finding the secrets of life in a tiny hermaphrodite

Plants assimilate inorganic sulfur and metabolize it further to organic sulfur compounds essential for plant growth, development, and stress mitigation. Animals including humans in turn depend on plants and microorganisms providing these essential compounds, such as the amino acid methionine, which they cannot synthesize. Furthermore, a number of sulfur-containing metabolites provide the characteristic tastes and smells of our food, and many of them are known to have health promoting and protective properties. Thus, adequate supply of sulfur can be a critical factor affecting crop yield and production of beneficial phytochemicals. However, because of the reduction in anthropogenic emission of sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere, particularly from developed countries, sulfur deficiency has become a problem for agriculture and in many areas sulfur fertilization is required to ensure yield, quality, and health of crops. Such an impact of sulfur has triggered research into mechanisms of sulfur metabolism in plants and its regulation. Indeed great progress has been made over the last decades as summarized in several recent reviews (Takahashi et al., 2011; Sauter et al., 2013; Calderwood and Kopriva, 2014). Starting with identification of genes encoding components of sulfur metabolism, research in molecular biology and molecular genetics has brought us toward finding regulators and signals controlling the pathway (Maruyama-Nakashita et al., 2006; Gigolashvili et al., 2007; Hirai et al., 2007), and describing natural variation in diverse sulfur related traits (Kliebenstein et al., 2001; Loudet et al., 2007; Chao et al., 2014). In addition, questions related to regulation of sulfur metabolism have been on the forefront of systems biology (Maruyama-Nakashita et al., 2003; Hirai et al., 2005; Nikiforova et al., 2005) and quantitative genetics (Loudet et al., 2007). This research topic organized in Frontiers in Plant Science has been an opportunity to present our current understanding and research progress focused on a number of interesting aspects in plant sulfur metabolism. We aimed to cover broad research topics in sulfur nutrition and metabolism by compiling diverse types of articles: original research reports to exemplify new information on questions the sulfur research community is addressing, focused reviews to provide detailed updates to specific topics, and perspectives to review a progress but also to address the questions for the next decade(s) of research. This concept found indeed a great support in the sulfur research community with 34 articles contributed by scholars representing wide disciplinary areas.

César Milstein: October 8, 1927– March 24, 2002

Students enter molecular biology and biochemistry labs to perform cloning experiments and find themselves pipetting endless volumes of colorless liquids.This practical activity acts as a simulation to engage students and encourage them to consider multiple modes of representation of biological concepts.LEGO bricks will be used as a versatile tool that is easily accessible to both students and educators to illustrate their concepts, other easily accessible tools will be used and other possible extensions to the lab will be discussed with educators so that they can add specific content to their classes.

Previous articleNext article No AccessCommemorating Scientific Disciplines: Memorializing ObjectivityThe First American and French Commemorations in Molecular Biology: From Collective Memory to Comparative HistoryPnina G. Abir-AmPnina G. Abir-Am Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Osiris Volume 14, Number 11999Commemorative Practices in Science: Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Collective Memory Published for the History of Science Society Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/649312 Views: 25Total views on this site Citations: 13Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 2000 The History of Science Society, Inc.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Dominik Želinský Becoming Socrates: Five elements of the consecration process and the case of Jan Patočka, European Journal of Social Theory 23, no.33 (Jun 2019): 370–388.https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431019852690Mark E. Borrello The Historiography of Modern Evolutionary Biology, (Sep 2020): 1–26.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74456-8_5-1Christine Aicardi Francis Crick, cross-worlds influencer: A narrative model to historicize big bioscience, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 55 (Feb 2016): 83–95.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2015.08.003Natalie B Aviles The little death: Rigoni-Stern and the problem of sex and cancer in 20th-century biomedical research, Social Studies of Science 45, no.33 (May 2015): 394–415.https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312715584402Lisa A. Onaga Ray Wu as Fifth Business: Deconstructing collective memory in the history of DNA sequencing, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 46 (Jun 2014): 1–14.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.12.006Jérôme Pierrel An RNA Phage Lab: MS2 in Walter Fiers’ Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Ghent, from Genetic Code to Gene and Genome, 1963–1976, Journal of the History of Biology 45, no.11 (Dec 2010): 109–138.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-010-9267-zTruus Van Bosstraeten Dogs and Coca-Cola: Commemorative Practices as part of Laboratory Culture at the Heymans Institute Ghent, 1902-1970, Centaurus 53, no.11 (Feb 2011): 1–30.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0498.2010.00204.xNeeraja Sankaran Mutant Bacteriophages, Frank Macfarlane Burnet, and the Changing Nature of “Genespeak” in the 1930s, Journal of the History of Biology 43, no.33 (Aug 2009): 571–599.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-009-9201-4Miguel García-Sancho A New Insight into Sanger’s Development of Sequencing: From Proteins to DNA, 1943–1977, Journal of the History of Biology 43, no.22 (Apr 2009): 265–323.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1Angela N. H. Creager The Paradox of the Phage Group: Essay Review, Journal of the History of Biology 43, no.11 (Jan 2010): 183–193.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-010-9226-8Hans-Jörg Rheinberger Recent science and its exploration: the case of molecular biology, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 40, no.11 (Mar 2009): 6–12.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.12.002Laura Hirshbein, Sharmalie Sarvananda History, power, and electricity: American popular magazine accounts of electroconvulsive therapy, 1940–2005, Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 44, no.11 (Jan 2008): 1–18.https://doi.org/10.1002/jhbs.20283Ton Van HelVoort Articulating Biochemistry in the Netherlands after the Second World War: Science for its Own Sake, Ambix 51, no.33 (Nov 2004): 199–218.https://doi.org/10.1179/000269804790219977

THE ROLE OF GENE THERAPY: Fact or Fiction?