Private Speech beyond Childhood: Testing the Developmental Hypothesis

Children's private speech has been widely studied among children, but it is clear that adults use pri- vate speech as well. In this study, illiterate adults' private speech during a ''school-like'' task was explored as a function of literacy level and task difficulty in a sample of 126 adults enrolled in a public literacy program. A main effect for literacy level was found—private speech was more internalized and less externalized among adults with higher literacy levels. Externalized private speech was more frequently observed among illiterate adults engaged in the most difficult task. Private speech served cognitive functions as indicated by the proportion of self-regulatory private speech and the proportion of private speech pre- ceding actions being higher in the advanced literacy group and among illiterate adults doing the easier task. Internal- ized private speech, self-regulatory private speech, and private speech preceding action were each positively cor- related with performance and negatively correlated with time to complete the task. The use of private speech in illiterate adults appears to be linked to the mastery of cultural experiences, such as literacy, similar to the self- talk of children.

Background: According to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, private speech functions both as a tool for thought regulation and as a transitional form between outer and inner speech. However, its role in adult second language (L2) learning-and the neural mechanisms supporting it-remains insufficiently understood. This study thus examined whether private speech facilitates L2 oral production and investigated its underlying neural mechanisms, including the extent to which private speech resembles inner speech in its regulatory function and the transitional nature of private speech. Methods: In Experiment 1, to identify natural users of private speech, 64 Chinese-speaking L2 English learners with varying proficiency levels were invited to complete a picture-description task. In Experiment 2, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to examine the neural mechanisms of private speech in 32 private speech users identified in Experiment 1. Results: Experiment 1 showed that private speech facilitates L2 oral production. Experiment 2 revealed that private and inner speech elicited highly similar patterns of functional connectivity. Among high-proficiency learners, private speech exhibited enhanced connectivity between the language network and the thought-regulation network, indicating involvement of higher-order cognitive processes. In contrast, among low-proficiency learners, connectivity was primarily restricted to language-related regions, suggesting that private speech supports basic linguistic processing at early stages. Furthermore, both private and outer speech showed stronger connectivity in speech-related brain regions. Conclusions: This is the first study to examine the neural mechanisms of private speech in L2 learners by using fNIRS. The findings provide novel neural evidence that private speech serves as both a regulatory scaffold and a transitional form bridging outer and inner speech. Its cognitive function appears to evolve with increasing L2 proficiency.

This work presents an experimental study to contrast the Vygotskian hypothesis on the influence of private speech on task performance, modulated by task difficulty, and its development between 3 and 7 years of age. We employed a method to manipulate private speech, an individual calibration method for establishing task difficulty, and a comparison between different age groups (5, 7 and 9 years). Our results show a significant interaction between use of private speech and task difficulty on the number of self-addressed utterances: only in the free speech condition does the number of utterances adopt an inverted U distribution as a function of task difficulty. When utterance content is considered, the relationship appears only for utterances classified as “task relevant”. Another significant interaction effect appears on task performance. In the free speech condition with medium and high levels of difficulty, private speech makes a significant contribution to task performance. No significant age effects were found either on the number of utterances or on task performance.

Preschool children’s private speech content and performance on executive functioning and problem-solving tasks

Studies investigating repetition in SL/FL learners' private speech have focused mainly on its cognitive and metacognitive functions. In the present study, the classroom observations, video-recordings of lessons, audio-recordings of six learners and two teachers and simulated recall interviews were conducted in Japanese language classes over two semesters. Repetition was found to have not only cognitive and metacognitive functions such as processing and monitoring, but also social and affective functions such as increasing learners' involvement and enjoyment. Repetition appears to promote learners' participation in both classroom and conversational situations.

The current study examined children’s spontaneous private speech during the vertical and the horizontal Tube Task to shed light on the cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes underlying tool innovation. Tool innovation is defined as solving a novel problem by using or modifying objects in a new and useful way without prior instructions. Relations between private speech of 3- to 4-year-old children (N = 89) and their task performance (i.e., success and latency to success) were analyzed using Bayesian statistics. Children who were successful at the task produced more metacognitive and cognitive speech compared to children who were unsuccessful at the task. Latency to success did not relate to (meta)cognitive speech, but it was associated to negative speech: Children who expressed negative emotions more often and who evaluated the task as being difficult needed more time to find a solution than children who used less negative speech. These findings indicate that cognitive skills and emotion regulation are closely related in preschoolers’ tool innovation.

Need for Cognition (NFC) refers to the enjoyment of and the search for intellectual challenges. Although numerous studies suggest associations between NFC and cognitive performance, the processes and factors that may mediate the relationship are not yet well understood. Based on the literature suggesting that self-efficacy (SE) expectancies mediate the relationship between NFC and cognitive performance, we sought to investigate this relationship systematically under controlled laboratory conditions. Additionally, we were interested in whether the visibility of the test subject's performance to others (i.e., the experimenter) would influence these correlations. After an online questionnaire assessing NFC, 204 participants completed a set of highly demanding intelligence tasks in the laboratory. Following the sample tasks and prior to working through the task battery, task-specific SE about solving the tasks was assessed. To examine the role of visibility, participants either worked alone or were observed by the investigator while completing the tasks. We found a moderate positive association between NFC and task-specific SE, as well as a significant small positive association between NFC and task performance. Further analyses indicated that the relationship between NFC and task performance is fully mediated by task-specific SE, without any moderation effects related to the visibility of one's own task performance to others. Our study suggests that the relationship between NFC and cognitive performance is also due to the positive influence of NFC on task-specific SE, which in turn influences cognitive performance.

In everyday life, people are usually capable of performing two tasks simultaneously. However, in a previous study we showed that during a fatiguing motor task, cognitive performance declined progressively. There is extensive literature on the (positive) effects of caffeine on cognitive and motor performance. These effects are most pronounced under suboptimal conditions, for example during fatigue. However, little is known about the effects of caffeine on cognitive performance during a fatiguing motor task. This study was aimed to investigate whether a moderate dose of caffeine could attenuate the decline in cognitive performance during a fatiguing motor task. The study consisted of a placebo and a caffeine (3 mg/kg) session. A total of 23 subjects completed these sessions in a semi-randomized and double-blind order. In each session, subjects performed maximal voluntary contractions of the index finger, a choice reaction time (CRT) task and a dual task consisting of a fatiguing motor task concomitantly with the same CRT task. After the fatiguing dual task, the CRT task was repeated. Caffeine improved cognitive task performance, in both the single and dual task, as shown by decreased reaction times together with unchanged accuracy. Cognitive performance in the dual task deteriorated with increasing fatigue. However, the decrease in cognitive performance in the beginning of the dual task, as observed in the placebo condition, was partly prevented by caffeine administration (i.e., no increase in reaction times). We found no effects of caffeine on motor parameters (absolute force, endurance time or electromyographic amplitude). Caffeine improved cognitive performance. This effect also extends under demanding situations, as was shown by the performance during the dual task, even during progressive motor fatigue.

BackgroundCognitive functional ability affects the accessibility of IT and is thus something that should be controlled for in user experience (UX) research. However, many cognitive function assessment batteries are long and complex, making them impractical for use in conventional experimental time frames. Therefore, there is a need for a short and reliable cognitive assessment that has discriminant validity for cognitive functions needed for general IT tasks. One potential candidate is the Trail Making Test (TMT).ObjectiveThis study investigated the usefulness of a digital TMT as a cognitive profiling tool in IT-related UX research by assessing its predictive validity on general IT task performance and exploring its discriminant validity according to discrete cognitive functions required to perform the IT task.MethodsA digital TMT (parts A and B) named Axon was administered to 27 healthy participants, followed by administration of 5 IT tasks in the form of CAPTCHAs (Completely Automated Public Turing tests to Tell Computers and Humans Apart). The discrete cognitive functions required to perform each CAPTCHA were rated by trained evaluators. To further explain and cross-validate our results, the original TMT and 2 psychological assessments of visuomotor and short-term memory function were administered.ResultsAxon A and B were administrable in less than 5 minutes, and overall performance was significantly predictive of general IT task performance (F5,19=6.352; P=.001; Λ=0.374). This result was driven by performance on Axon B (F5,19=3.382; P=.02; Λ=0.529), particularly for IT tasks involving the combination of executive processing with visual object and pattern recognition. Furthermore, Axon was cross-validated with the original TMT (Pcorr=.001 and Pcorr=.017 for A and B, respectively) and visuomotor and short-term memory tasks.ConclusionsThe results demonstrate that variance in IT task performance among an age-homogenous neurotypical population can be related to intersubject variance in cognitive function as assessed by Axon. Although Axon’s predictive validity seemed stronger for tasks involving the combination of executive function with visual object and pattern recognition, these cognitive functions are arguably relevant to the majority of IT interfaces. Considering its short administration time and remote implementability, the Axon digital TMT demonstrates the potential to be a useful cognitive profiling tool for IT-based UX research.

Age-related changes in children's use, self report, and awareness of verbal problem-solving strategies (private speech) and strategy effectiveness were explored with a large (N = 2,156) cross-sectional sample of children aged 5 to 17. Children's verbal strategies moved from overt, to partially covert, to fully covert forms with age. Self-reports of verbal strategy use were accurate yet incomplete. Awareness of children's use of verbal strategies was low and increased with age. Although verbal strategies were associated with competence among the youngest children, self-talk was unrelated to task performance for older children, suggesting considerable persistence over time of a relatively ineffective strategy. Awareness was not a prerequisite for children's verbal strategy use but was positively associated with strategy effectiveness among those who talked.

PURPOSE: To investigate the effect of ingestion of a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage on exercise performance during simulated volleyball. METHODS: Ten NCAA DIII volleyball players took part in 2 counterbalanced exercise sessions where a sports drink (6% carbohydrate-electrolyte, CHO) or flavored placebo (PLA) was provided. Athletes ingested 20 ml/kg (35.9±4.1 g carbohydrate/hr) prior to & during exercise. A high-intensity, "stop-and-go" exercise protocol (125 min: 10-min warm-up, four 23-min games, four 2½-min breaks between games, and a 6-min "game 5") previously designed to closely mimic the physical & skilled demands of a competitive volleyball match was utilized. Each "game" included: 27 front & 27 back row rallies (2.9-27s), 50 breaks between rallies (16.2-18.9s), and three 47s time-outs (work:rest = 1:3.3). During rallies, athletes viewed instructions on a screen and performed timed locomotive tasks (shuffling, walking, jogging, sprinting) as well as volleyball specific skills. Each skill performed was scored for accuracy. Also, a timed "hopscotch" performance task was completed once/game. "Game 5" was maximum-intensity and included: serves, 12m timed shuttles, attacks, block jumps and passes. Cognitive testing (POMS, concentration grid, memory recall) was undertaken between "games". RESULTS: 1332±121 ml of fluid was ingested in each trial. Blood glucose (115.7±8.5 vs 101.0±3.0 mg/dl) and lactate were higher in CHO compared to PLA. Heart rate (162.2±4.0 bpm) & RPE (14.67±0.30) increased in game 5, but were not different between trials. There were no differences between trials for any skilled performance or cognitive tasks. No net change in body weight occurred in either trial, indicating similar sweat rates and ingested fluid volumes. Hopscotch task times & errors appeared to improve with CHO (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: CHO ingestion increased glucose & lactate, but had little effect on volleyball performance. The lack of performance changes with CHO may be due to: high variability in volleyball skill performance, the simulated protocol didn't adequately mimic an actual volleyball match (no competition/motivation) or the physical demands of volleyball are not intense enough to benefit from CHO supplementation for the duration of a match. Supported by the Gatorade Sports Science Institute.

Neural correlates of delayed visual–motor performance in children treated for brain tumours

A study is described which examines the interaction of two of the most salient stressors found in the tactical aviation cockpit: 1) highly demanding decision-making tasks, and 2) intermittent periods of high G. Addressing this issue is critical because: 1) it is probable that physiological stressors such as G may have serious ramifications on pilots' abilities to perform complex cognitive tasks; 2) there may be different impacts of G on different types of cognitive tasks, and the impact of these deficits may be correlated with the cumulative amount of time a pilot has spent under G; 3) it is not clear that donning protective gear will have an effect on cognitive task performance; and 4) there are no data to suggest how long cognitive decrements due to exposure to physiological stressors will last. A general approach is described for evaluating the cumulative effects of physiological stressors (e.g., G) on cognitive task performance in a within-subjects experimental design. A PC-based task suite was used incorporating three concurrently performed tasks: a compensatory tracking task, a resource management task, and a system monitoring task. Results indicated that performance across the experimental conditions was highly variable. Preliminary results demonstrated that: 1) even low-level increases in G can be disruptive to subject performance, 2) there are cumulative decrements in task performance during G, and 3) if stable performance on tasks is required, training for complex task performance must take place in the presence of salient physiological stressors.

Neurotensin receptor levels as a function of brain aging and cognitive performance in the Morris water maze task in the rat

The influence of a 16-week exercise program, APOE status, and age on executive function task performance: A randomized trial.