Proactive Human Factors Engineering Analysis in Space Station Design Using the Computer Manikin Jack

This chapter describes the establishment process, purpose of establishment, mission, exploration plan, activities of the European Space Agency (ESA) and International Space Station (ISS), and an explanation of the contents of the treaty that is legal basis for its establishment. The European Space Agency (ESA) is an intergovernmental organization of 22 member states dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a worldwide staff of about 2,200 in 2018 and an annual budget of about € 6.68 billion (US $ 7.43 billion) in 2020. ESA also works closely with space organizations outside Europe. ESA has missions planned for Jupiter (JUICE, 2022) and others that will seek dark matter (Euclid, 2020) and observe the energetic universe (Athena, 2028). The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station (habitable artificial satellite) in low Earth orbit. The ISS programme is a joint project between five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscomos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada).

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The International Space Station (ISS) Environmental Control and Life Support (ECLS) System is continuing to be integrated with a multitude of international partner contributions. In six short months, ISS integrates ECLS systems with the Node 2, Columbus module, Japanese Logistics Module, and Automated Transfer Vehicle developed and produced by the European Space Agency (ESA) and Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The new systems provide both international unique hardware and common ISS hardware.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">An overview of the integrated ECLS system and the unique capabilities of each new module is provided. A spreadsheet of the common hardware and locations is provided. An overview of the on-orbit operations is provided.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Adding the international partner systems makes a robust ISS ECLS system. More U.S. hardware will continue to be launched to enhance the ECLS six crew capability.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper presents the basic test data obtained from tests of a cabin air distribution system in a simulated Space Station U.S. Lab-A module.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The cabin air distribution system controls the flow of air in the open space of a Space Station module. In order to meet crew comfort criteria the local velocities for this cabin air are required to be distributed within a specified range with upper and lower limits. Achieving this desired velocity distribution is dependent upon the: (1.) design of the cabin air supply equipment and cabin air return equipment, (2.) total flowrate of air supplied to and subsequently returned from the cabin, and (3.) interactive effects of any other additional air flow streams which enter and exit the cabin.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The basic Space Station design for the cabin air supply and air return equipment was used in this test program. Only directional adjustments to vanes in supply air diffusers were made during the test. This equipment is included in the Temperature and Humidity Control (THC) subsystem for the Space Station. Two other air streams, in addition to what is defined as THC cabin airflow, which were involved in the test program were:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">1.</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Standoff airflow – Standoffs are described in the paper. Briefly, they are enclosures within the cabin which formerly included ventilation fans. The consequent standoff airflow interacted with THC cabin airflow. The present baseline THC subsystem does not include the standoff fans.</div></li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">2.</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Intermodule Ventilation (IMV) Airflow – IMV assemblies are used to interchange airflow between Space Station modules. These modules include the U.S. Lab-A module, the nodes, and, later in the Space Station program, the international modules.</div></li></ol></div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Test results from eight (8) of the test runs which demonstrate the ability for the air distribution system to meet its objectives are presented. These test run results are compared with each other with respect to their standing relative to meeting the test objectives.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The test program investigated the effects of the variables noted above in meeting the test objectives. The basic variable in these test runs was the THC airflow. This airflow varied from 300 cfm to 500 cfm in the 8 test runs presented here. Some changes were made in supply air diffuser vane directional settings. Standoff airflow was used in one test run (number 4) and IMV airflow was used in test runs 5, 6, 7, and 8. Based on the test results, the desired velocity range and an engineering evaluation of the test results, a THC airflow rate for U.S. Lab-A is recommended.</div>

Conceptual design and flight simulation of space stations

Space travel: medicine in extremes

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Developed as part of the suite of Space Station Biological Research Project (SSBRP) hardware to support research aboard the International Space Station (ISS), the Incubator is a temperature-controlled chamber for conducting life science research with small animal, plant and microbial specimens. The Incubator is designed for use only on the ISS and is transported to/from the ISS, unpowered and without specimens, in the Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM). The Incubator interfaces with the three SSBRP Host Systems; the Habitat Holding Racks (HHR), the Life Sciences Glovebox (LSG) and the 2.5 m Centrifuge Rotor (CR), providing investigators with the ability to conduct research in microgravity and at variable gravity levels of up to 2-g.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The temperature within the Specimen Chamber can be controlled between 4° and 45<sup>o</sup>C. Cabin air is recirculated within the Specimen Chamber and can be exchanged with the ISS cabin at a rate of ≈ 50 cc/min. The humidity of the Specimen Chamber is monitored. The Specimen Chamber has a usable volume of ≈ 19 liters and contains two (2) connectors at 28v dc (60W) for science equipment; 5 dedicated thermometers for science; ports to support analog and digital signals from experiment unique sensors or other equipment; an Ethernet port; and a video port. It is currently manifested for UF-3 and will be integrated within the first SSBRP Habitat Holding Rack for launch.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The Columbus laboratory module, developed by Astrium Bremen as prime contractor and Alenia Spazio as co-prime, is the European contribution to the International Space Station (ISS) program and as such it will support, once in orbit, micro-gravity and space based research activities of the member states.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Columbus Environmental Control System (ECS) employs an Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) providing atmosphere pressure, cabin ventilation and temperature humidity control inside the module in conjunction with an autonomous Active Thermal Control System (ATCS) that provides the heat collection capability. The ATCS, based on software controlled water loop, provides also the cooling capability for Payloads and Subsystem equipment. The ECS is completed with the Passive Thermal Control System based on software controlled shell heating system plus passive fixtures such as Multi-Layers Insulation (MLI) blankets.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Generally, both, the Columbus ATCS as well as the ECLSS are qualified via simplified but representative tests and concluding analyses. Complete verification of the module thermal and environmental control design however, will be performed via analysis supported by ECS System Level Integrated Test as well as the predictions for flight.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">With respect to responsibility sharing, Alenia is responsible for all verification by test related to thermal/environmental aspects, i.e. Alenia will define the test requirements and cases to be performed via the establishment of a dedicated test specification. On the other side, definition and production of the test set-up as well as the performance of the test is assigned to the Columbus prime Astrium SI Bremen.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In order to get confidence on the functional performance of the Columbus ECS and to validate the Integrated Overall Thermal Mathematical Model (IOTMM) on system level the module will be subjected to an Integrated System Test (IST).</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Purpose of the ECS IST is to provide the first verification of the thermal/environmental interrelation between the active cooling (ATCS) and environmental control system (ECLSS) hardware and software and to collect as much characteristic thermal data as possible for the validation of the flight configuration IOTMM. This test will represent the second and last test in series on the flight configuration of the Columbus module.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Previous tests, for verification of the functional interfaces of the ATCS and ECLSS, have been performed already in the frame of the Electrical Test Model (ETM) utilization. However, this test did not provide information on environmental and thermal parameters of the system but rather on the functional interrelations of the relevant units of the subsystems. Presently, the subject test will be performed in the integration hall of Astrium SI Bremen (Class 100.000 clean room conditions) and the pressurized shell is planned to be covered by the flight multi-layer insulation only located beneath the meteoroid debris panels (MDPS) of the module. However, in order to get as much as possible characteristic data of the system not only the test cases have to be selected very carefully but also additional test supporting equipment (TSE) has to be evaluated.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The present paper summarizes the efforts generated to establish the Environmental/Thermal test in the frame of the system level IST of the Columbus module, describes the interrelation aspects of the thermal/environmental subsystem verification by test and analysis and presents the derived methodologies and expected results.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The International Space Station (ISS) United States Laboratory module has been under test for approximately two years in the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) at NASA Kennedy Space Center (KSC) preparing for launch. Preparation activities for closing out the Environmental Control and Life Support (ECLS) system have included Closed Hatch testing to verify the capability of the life support equipment to support the crew, final manufacturing steps, and the close-out process itself. These activities were accomplished by an integrated Boeing and NASA team, located at the Johnson Space Center (Houston, Texas), Marshall Space Flight Center (Huntsville, Alabama) and Kennedy Space Center, Florida. On December 13, the Laboratory module hatches were sealed prior to loading into the Shuttle Orbiter payload bay for launch on February 7, 2001.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper will address the Laboratory module ECLS hardware configuration including off-gas testing, baseline cabin sampling used to compute initial on-orbit ingress contaminant load, final purge, and cabin pressure adjustment for launch.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">To address basic cell biology questions such as “Can cells respond to a gravity stimulus?”, a Cell Culture Unit (CCU) is being developed for use in the International Space Station. The CCU will accommodate diverse specimen types (animal, plant, and microbial cells; tissues; aquatic organisms) in up to twenty-four cell specimen chambers. The environmental conditions (e.g. temperature, pH, gas concentrations) will be maintained by medium recirculation and renewal, and gas and heat exchange. The CCU will also provide for the addition of experimental agents (e.g. growth factors), automated sampling, and monitoring of the specimens by video microscopy. Microgravity experiments will be performed using the CCU within the Habitat Holding Rack (HHR); a CCU within the Space Station Centrifuge will serve as an on-board unit-gravity control.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The CCU design includes a Cell Specimen Environment Assembly to maintain the specimens, a Video Microscope System to obtain specimen images, an Electronics Assembly to control the subsystems and provide signal conditioning, a Power Supply Subsystem to condition power from the HHR or Centrifuge, an Active Cooling Subsystem to maintain specimen temperature, and a Structural Containment Assembly to house the subsystems and interface with the HHR or Centrifuge. Six reference specimens, encompassing the candidates that will likely be flown and that exercise the required ranges of experimental conditions, were selected to test the individual subsystems and the CCU system. Here we report the design and development testing of the first CCU prototypes (e.g. biocompatibility, medium flow and mixing, gas exchange, sampling, video images, cell and tissue culture). Detailed design and testing will continue towards a first launch of the CCU in 2001.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Testing of the International Space Station (ISS) U.S. Laboratory baseline configuration of the Atmosphere Revitalization Subsystem (ARS) by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) has been conducted as part of the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) design and development program. This testing addressed specific questions with respect to the control and performance of the baseline ARS subassemblies in the ISS U.S. Laboratory configuration. The test used pressurized oxygen injection, a mass spectrometric major constituent analyzer (MCA), a four-bed molecular sieve carbon dioxide removal assembly (CDRA), and a trace contaminant control subassembly (TCCS) to maintain the atmospheric composition in a sealed chamber within ISS specifications. Human metabolic processes for a crew of four are simulated according to projected ISS mission timelines.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The Integrated ARS Test (IART) builds upon previous integrated ECLSS testing conducted at MSFC between 1987 and 1992. The IART is designed to address ARS control and performance issues that are peculiar to the ISS. These issues resulted from the ISS ECLSS configuration development, design requirement changes since 1992, and the increased maturity of each ARS subassembly's design. IART test objectives, facility design, pretest analyses, test and control requirements, and test results are presented.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The Mini Pressurized Logistic Module (MPLM) of the International Space Station (ISSA) is foreseen for the transport of service equipment, experiment racks and service racks to the station. For the orbital operational phase it needs an Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) to make it commissionable for the astronauts. Because of its short mission time and the usage as a transport vehicle it has no completely autonomous ECLSS functionality. The Temperature and Humidity Control (THC) is supported by the Space Station via an Inter Module Ventilation Interface (IMV l/F). The MPLM ECLS has the requirement to suck revitalized air through the IMV l/F and mix it up with the recirculated air in order to provide a comfortable atmosphere in the MPLM habitable area.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The fulfillment of the hydraulic and thermal requirements is verified by test and analysis. With this paper we provide the hydraulic analysis performed with ECOSIM, an ESA approved software tool. It is the first time that ECOSIM is used for an ECLSS analysis. It is a software tool for steady state and transient simulations of complex thermo-hydraulic systems. From a library of ECLSS components like ducts, valves, fan, etc. a hydraulic network can be built up by connecting the components with each other. With this paper we present the application of the ECOSIM S/W tool for the simulation of the MPLM ECLS. The results of the simulation are verified with partly available test results.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is working towards future long duration manned space flights beyond low earth orbit. During these missions, vegetable crops may be grown on the transit vehicle as well as the lunar or planetary surface. The vegetable crops will provide the crew with added nutrition and variety. The vegetable crops, unlike the prepackaged foods, will add bright colors, fresh textures (e.g., crispiness), and fresh aromas to the crew’s menu. Ten vegetable crops have been identified for possible use in long duration missions. They are lettuce, spinach, carrot, tomato, green onion, radish, bell pepper, strawberries, fresh herbs, and cabbage. Since these crops do not require any cooking or food processing prior to consumption, careful sanitation procedures need to be performed.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Whether these crops are grown on a transit vehicle (e.g., International Space Station) or on the lunar or planetary surface, it will be necessary to determine how to safely handle the vegetables while maintaining acceptability. Since hydrogen peroxide degrades into water and oxygen and is generally recognized as safe (GRAS), hydrogen peroxide has been recommended as the sanitizer.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The objective of this research was to determine the required effective concentration of hydrogen peroxide without adversely affecting the quality of the vegetables. Store bought vegetables were dipped in deionized distilled water, 1% hydrogen peroxide, 3% hydrogen peroxide, or 5% hydrogen peroxide. Treated produce and controls were stored in plastic bags at 5°C for up to 14 days. Sensory, color, texture, and total plate count were measured.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Although each vegetable reacts to hydrogen peroxide differently, the data suggest that with the exception of green onions, which may require a 5% dip, the other vegetables will only require a 0% or 1% hydrogen peroxide dip to reduce the microbial total count while not adversely affecting the quality of the vegetable. More testing still needs to be done on actual chamber grown vegetables. It is expected that chamber grown vegetables will have a lower microbial count and may not need as strong a treatment of hydrogen peroxide.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Food heating concepts were investigated as part of the International Space Station Galley development effort, which culminated in testing the Conduction Oven Tray proof of concept prototype.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The first step of the investigation was to determine what heating concepts best suited the myriad of requirements imposed on the Galley Food Heating System (FHS). Major FHS requirements include power limits, daily energy limits, waste heat limits, the ability to heat frozen and ambient foods, and the ability to accommodate variable food package geometries. The review of microwave, convection, conduction, radiation (or light or infrared), steam, and combination oven types with respect to the ISS Galley application are detailed in an Oven Performance Matrix.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Results presented in the Oven Performance Matrix show the top three oven type candidates are conduction oven, convection oven, and conduction/convection oven combination. Conduction oven attributes leading to its number one ranking include high reliability, excellent food temperature control, ease of use, minimal noise, EMI compliance and peak power requirement. The convection oven scored similar to the conduction oven but ranked second due to its relatively higher noise level, higher EMI potential, lower reliability, and increased peak power and daily energy usage.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In addition to the FHS requirements, the Proof of Concept Conduction Oven was designed to perform an experiment investigating heating of frozen foods. In particular, frozen food heating times were measured with respect to varying oven plate temperatures and food package to oven plate heat transfer contact area. Test data is also presented showing that the Proof of Concept oven successfully heats ambient food within the thirty minute requirement. Finally, ISS Galley FHS forward work is presented in this paper along with further detail on the oven type trade study, Proof of Concept design and testing, and frozen food experimental investigation test results.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">In the frame of ESA's Basic Technology Research Programme an integrated Fan-Pump-Separator (FPS) unit, for the European EVA Space Suit System, was developed up to breadboard level. The development was carried out by TECHNOFAN (F) as subcontractor to DORNIER (D) under contract of the European Space Agency.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Concept Trade-offs and design definition confirmed the advantages in power, mass and volume of integrating all three functions into a single unit. The unit is driven by one common brushless DC motor. The performance requirements for the three basic functions (oxygen circulation, coolant water circulation and water separation) were derived from the system layout of the life support system for the European EVA Space Suit.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The separate functional units were comprehensively tested in preliminary development tests. Final assembly of the functional units led to an integrated breadboard, which was successfully tested.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper describes the development approach, the concept selection, the design and the tests with their results.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The Lithium Hydroxide (LiOH) management plan to control carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) for the Shuttle while docked to the International Space Station (ISS) reduces the mass and volume needed to be launched. For missions before Flight UF-1/STS-108, the Shuttle and ISS each removed their own CO<sub>2</sub> during the docked time period. To control the CO<sub>2</sub> level, the Shuttle used LiOH canisters and the ISS used the Vozdukh or the Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA) with the Vozdukh being the primary ISS device for CO<sub>2</sub> removal. Analysis predicted that both the Shuttle and Station atmospheres could be controlled using the Station resources with only the Vozdukh and the CDRA. If the LiOH canisters were not needed for the CO<sub>2</sub> control on the Shuttle during the docked periods, then the mass and volume from these LiOH canisters normally launched on the Shuttle could be replaced with other cargo. On the Flight UF-1/STS-108 mission, a Station Detailed Test Objective (SDTO) showed the feasibility that both the Shuttle and Station atmospheres could be controlled using the Station resources.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper will discuss the methods and their priority for removing CO<sub>2</sub>, how CDRA operations affect the plan, the sources of the LiOH canisters, the results of the SDTO, the performance and lifetime of the LiOH canisters, rotations plans, stowage issues, and future plans.</div>