Provenance and Upbringing

Human is the result of upbringing and needs upbringing more than any other creature; therefore, the most valuable human affair is upbringing. Regarding the influence of force on upbringing whether about ourselves or others, at first, it is enough to answer this question that what the meaning of force is and whether it has middle point or extravagance and wastage. Can it have stages and levels or be mild? When can we benefit from force in upbringing? Are upbringing and force external factors or internal ones? The main purpose of present study is to answer the question that whether we can use force as an influential method in upbringing? It is clear from this question that force is recommended in some cases and refused in some others and must be applied based on the age and proper condition; therefore, attention to these points pave the way for reaching upbringing goals. Methodology of this study was qualitative and researches, papers, texts, lectures and books which relate to force were studied to answer the research question.

Summary Factors contributing to the evolution of reproductive strategies have been of great interest to evolutionary biologists. In tropical amphibians predation and competition have been suggested to play a major role. Poison frogs of the family Dendrobatidae display a trend towards the use of very small pools and increased parental care, particularly in the genus Dendrobates. Some species with female parental care, asymmetrical biparental care and biparental care, have evolved novel behaviors in association with the use very small phytotelmata. It has been hypothesized that selection pressure imposed by predation and competition favored the use of small phytotelmata, and this, in turn, produced selection for trophic egg provisioning to ameliorate the lack of available nutrients. To elucidate the ecological factors associated with the transition from uniparental male care to biparental care and associated changes in social behaviors, we evaluated key behavioral and ecological differences between Dendrobates imitator and D. variabilis. Dendrobates imitator used significantly smaller phytotelmata in different plant species than D. variabilis for tadpole and embryo deposition. The parental strategy of D. variabilis was limited to male parental care, whereas D. imitator exhibited biparental care. Males and females of D. variabilis were observed to have a promiscuous mating system with little mate fidelity. This contrasted with D. imitator, where paired males and females were observed interacting daily and were never observed courting additional mates. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that a key ecological difference between these species, involving the size of pools typically used for reproduction, is strongly associated with the evolution of biparental care and monogamy in D. imitator.

This paper proposes to examine in some depth Synanon's innovative experiment in collective child rearing and education. A detailed description of the Synanon School is presented, including its history and development, organization, and census data on its 200 resident children by age, sex, race, and time in Synanon. The school's functioning is discussed with special emphasis on the following areas: (a) Synanon as a new, emerging self-contained community with its own life style and value system; (b) The educational concepts and philosophical tenets which underly Synanon, its school curriculum and practices; (c) Synanon's unique and extensive use of small group processes to foster change at the individual, social, and institutional levels; (d) Its child rearing practices, role of parents, utilization of many adults as parenting figures, and socialization techniques that rely extensively on peer group influences. Frequent references are made to the Israeli Kibbutz system as an analagous model for communal child rearing and education. Differences and similarities between Synanon's emerging 'Community Parenting' model and the Kibbutz system are pointed out. Questions are also raised as to possible strengths and weakness of Synanon's approach to collective child rearing. The paper concludes with some observations on the significance and implications of Synanon's 'in vivo' experiment in alternative models of social organization, child rearing and education.

As part of a larger study of historical changes in popular American beliefs about emotional development, we examined sex-specific references to emotion in 54 child rearing manuals drawn from six distinct eras in child rearing philosophy between 1915 and 1980. Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed stable, sex-specific patterns of reference to the form and function of emotion. The emotions of mothers and of fathers are evaluated quite differently from one another, whereas little if any distinction is drawn between the emotional reactions of sons and of daughters. Mothers are represented as exhibiting a tendency to be emotional; the expression of this emotion, if it should become out of control, is construed as a serious threat to the child's achievement of healthy maturity. Fathers are described as having a tendency to respond to their children with less feeling and more objectivity. These contrasting representations of maternal and paternal emotion are not simply an artifact of psychoanalytic influence on American theories of child rearing, nor are they related to changes in styles of child rearing. The implications of these beliefs for adult child rearing roles are discussed.

This paper investigated the influence of socio-cultural factors on child's upbringing in Oshodi/Isolo Local Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria. Precisely, 250 parents having children that are 0-12 years were interviewed with the aid of questionnaire schedule. The study tested only two hypotheses. Frequency table, Chi-square and binary logistic regression analysis were employed to analyze the data obtained from the survey. The major findings are: firstly, that the socio-cultural factors identified in this study include; the influence of residential environment, family, culture and social institutions. Secondly, that the socio-cultural factors such as; the influence of family, social institutions and residential environment are significantly related to child's upbringing through authoritarian parenting style.Thus, the paper recommends the following: firstly, that the native culture of every parent should reflect in their choice of authoritarian parenting style. Lastly, the family involvement, social institution and residential environment should form the bedrock in child's upbringing in every Nigerian society.

BackgroundThe human mating system is characterized by bi-parental care and faithful monogamy is highly valued in most cultures. Marriage has evolved as a social institution and punishment for extra pair mating (EPM) or adultery is common. However, similar to other species with bi-parental care, both males and females frequently indulge in EPM in secrecy since it confers certain gender specific genetic benefits. Stability of faithful monogamy is therefore a conundrum. We model human mating system using game theory framework to study the effects of factors that can stabilize or destabilize faithful committed monogamy.ResultsAlthough mate guarding can partly protect the genetic interests, we show that it does not ensure monogamy. Social policing enabled by gossiping is another line of defense against adultery unique to humans. However, social policing has a small but positive cost to an individual and therefore is prone to free riding. We suggest that since exposure of adultery can invite severe punishment, the policing individuals can blackmail opportunistically whenever the circumstances permit. If the maximum probabilistic benefit of blackmailing is greater than the cost of policing, policing becomes a non-altruistic act and stabilizes in the society. We show that this dynamics leads to the coexistence of different strategies in oscillations, with obligate monogamy maintained at a high level. Deletion of blackmailing benefit from the model leads to the complete disappearance of obligate monogamy.ConclusionsObligate monogamy can be maintained in the population in spite of the advantages of EPM. Blackmailing, which makes policing a non-altruistic act, is crucial for the maintenance of faithful monogamy. Although biparental care, EPM, mate guarding and punishment are shared by many species, gossiping and blackmailing make the human mating system unique.

The evolution of parental care is a complex process, and many evolutionary pathways have been hypothesized. Maternal care is common, but paternal care is not. High confidence of paternity should favor the evolution of paternal attendance in caring for young; biparental care is rare because paternity assurance is typically low compared to maternity. Biparental care in insects has evolved several times and has high diversity. To evaluate the conditions for the evolution of biparental care, a comparison across taxa is suitable. In this review, common traits of biparental species are discussed in order to evaluate previous models of biparental care and the life history of insects. It will be shown that nesting is a common feature in biparental insects. Nest structure limits extra-pair copulations, contributing to the evolution of biparental care.

The power of naming is capturing the interest of social work practitioners, particularly those who seek to provide gender- and ethnic-sensitive interventions. Dividing families into categories such as intact or broken pejoratively labels mother-headed families, which actually reflect the maternal commitment and strength of women managing on their own (Abramovitz, 1991). Most one-parent families are headed by women, and a disproportionate number are headed by women of color (Van Den Bergh & Cooper, 1986). So divisive dichotomies place women and people of color in positions that legitimize their disempowered social status (Van Den Bergh & Cooper, 1986). The way practitioners refer to and categorize both individuals and families affects problem definitions, interventions, and the helping process in general. A nonintact seeking professional help with a problematic parent-child interaction risks being confronted by a practitioner who attributes family problems to inadequate structure rather than to the normative developmental phases of childhood and family life cycles. Mothers who raise children alone often internalize low expectations about their ability to head families and subsequently develop worried well syndromes. That is, they may attribute all family conflicts to their inability to parent their children alone. The negative impact of pejorative naming has reached full cycle when problems associated with the life cycle of the family, such as adolescent individuation, are attributed by the mother herself to her inability to parent her children in a one-parent home. Placing families in a deviant category is but one of the artificial dichotomies that have negative consequences for mother-headed families. Such dualistic thinking results in other cleavages of women's experiences that, in the interest of the well-being of women and their families, are best perceived in an integrative fashion. The traditional polarity between work and leisure, for example, does not fit the life experiences of women who face multiple challenges associated with the interface of wage labor and child rearing. Employment and family responsibilities are inseparable components of women's lives. Affordable child care, for example, is requisite to mothers being able to participate in the labor market and to provide for their families. Interface of Wage Labor and Child Rearing When wage labor and child rearing are artificially separated as two distinct areas for social policies and programs, comprehensive services that could enable women to perform both roles are overlooked. Guaranteed child support awards (for child rearing) and work training (for employment) are essential to raise impoverished mothers and their children above the poverty level (National Center for Children in Poverty, 1992). Because a majority of fathers do not pay the full amount of child support determined by the courts, the government provides subsidies to mothers and collects payments from fathers. In the United States, 50 percent of all single mother-headed families live below the poverty level, compared with 8 percent of single father-headed families (Gordon, 1990). In addition, mother-headed families are fully one-third of the homeless population (Bassuk, 1991). Gender differences in family poverty rates need to be assessed in terms of persistent gaps in earnings; women still earn only 74 percent of male annual wages (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990). Disparities in earnings are even more pronounced for black and Latino mothers. Nearly one-third of black single mothers who worked for pay in 1987 were below the poverty level, whereas 17 percent of white single mothers in the labor market were poor (Gordon, 1990). Discrimination in hiring based on race and ethnicity also hinders mothers receiving child support payments, because men of color earn disproportionally lower wages compared with their white counterparts. The solution to family poverty is not simply employment, but employment that pays at least $6 to $7 per hour to raise the family out of poverty (Bane, Ellwood, Jargowsky, & Wilson, 1989). …

Both temperament and parental child-rearing style are found to be associated with childhood anxiety disorders in population studies. This study investigates the contribution of not only temperament but also parental child-rearing to clinical childhood anxiety disorders. It also investigates whether the contribution of temperament is moderated by child-rearing style, as is suggested by some studies in the general population. Fifty children were included (25 with anxiety disorders and 25 non-clinical controls). Child-rearing and the child's temperament were assessed by means of parental questionnaire (Child Rearing Practices Report (CRPR) (Block in The Child-Rearing Practices Report. Institute of Human Development. University of California, Berkely, 1965; The Child-Rearing Practices Report (CRPR): a set of Q items for the description of parental socialisation attitudes and values. Unpublished manuscript. Institute of Human Development. University of California, Berkely, 1981), EAS Temperament Survey for Children (Boer and Westenberg in J Pers Assess 62:537-551, 1994; Buss and Plomin in Temperament: early developing personality traits. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, Hillsdale, 1984s). Analysis of variance showed that anxiety-disordered children scored significantly higher on the temperamental characteristics emotionality and shyness than non-clinical control children. Hierarchical logistic regression analyses showed that temperament (emotionality and shyness) and child-rearing style (more parental negative affect, and less encouraging independence of the child) both accounted for a unique proportion of the variance of anxiety disorders. Preliminary results suggest that child-rearing style did not moderate the association between children's temperament and childhood anxiety disorders. The limited sample size might have been underpowered to assess this interaction.

Research Objective: The main scientific aim of article is an attempt to reconstruct the concept of contemporary Western culture, created by Canadian contemporary philosopher of religion and politics, Charles Taylor, which is the exclusive humanism. The Research Problem and Methods: The main research problem takes the form of a question about the conditions of the possibility of moral-ethical upbringing in the reality of exclusive humanism. The methodology is based on hermeneutic reconstruction, emphasizing two categories – understanding and sense. The Process of Argumentation: At the beginning, the authors present the definition of exclusive humanism, as an outlook on life, typical of the Western European culture, deprived of transcendental horizon. Then they discuss the most important features of exclusive humanism, such as an affirmation of the value of human being and subjectivization of faith (and related with it – secularization or religious pluralism) and consider, what is the importance of these processes for the young person development. Then the authors describe such features of exclusive humanism, as orientation on earthly life and minimizing suffering, noting that this outlook on life cannot provide the answers for the most difficult existential questions. The authors also highlight the bright sides of exclusive humanism, such as observed global solidarity and general willingness to help people in need. Finally, the authors draw attention to the paradox of exclusive humanism. Research Results: As a result of the analysis, the authors come to the conclusion that the exclusive humanism is an important challenge for moral-ethical upbringing. The main threats for the educational process in the exclusive humanism conditions, are the difficulties of transmitting non-material values, especially – the moral ones. Although the object of its apotheosis (human flourishing, fullness of life, self-realization) may be considered as valuable, it may paradoxically – by freeing from transcendental framework – limit human development, by withholding from him the opportunity to achieve full self-realization. Conclusions, Innovations and Recommendations: In the conclusion, the authors notes, that Charles Taylor, although a Catholic himself, when proposes a humanism open to the transcendence, he does not necessarily mean theistic perspective. Taylor’s form of humanism is compatible with a belief in God, but does not necessitate it. It necessitates an attitude of openness and willingness to leave a space for the possibility of God and a sense to life beyond the mundane.

Parents face a trade-off when allocating limited resources to reproduction and self-maintenance, and this can result in differential investment in individual offspring when rearing multiple offspring simultaneously. In birds with biparental care, it is not well understood how each parent allocates its resources to different chicks of the same brood. Theory suggests that parental investment depends on offspring quality and brood size, but empirical quantification of parent–offspring interactions during the postfledging stage is often difficult. We worked with captive common ravens, Corvus corax, a slightly dimorphic songbird with extended periods of biparental care, to investigate the effects of offspring sex, body mass, brood age and brood size on the feeding probability by both parents. We further investigated the influence of the same factors on offspring begging behaviour and affiliative interactions between parent and offspring. Mothers were more likely to feed and affiliate with their offspring than fathers. Fathers were more likely to feed and affiliate with sons than daughters, whereas mothers showed no preference. When more than one son was present, fathers were more likely to feed and affiliate with heavier sons than light sons. Brood size increased the begging probability of chicks, but decreased their probability of being fed. Our results suggest that biparental care in ravens is skewed towards the mother and that paternal care is selective. Selective paternal investment in the heaviest son may be adaptive in a system where heaviest males better compete for resources during dispersal.

We tested if Black-necked Grebe, a species in which both sexes undertake moult-migration, have an unbiased sex ratio at a moulting site in Europe, as previously found in North America and as was expected for a species with biparental care. For this we used a unique long-term dataset of 5821 grebes captured for ringing throughout the moulting seasons of 2006-2012 in the Odiel salt-marshes (SW Spain). The grebes were sexed and classified as adults (74%) or juveniles (26%). Birds ringed at Odiel were recovered over a wide area up to central Russia and south to the Canary Islands and Morocco. We report on a unique case of a strongly biased sex ratio in a moult-migrating bird species with biparental care, in which adult females were significantly more abundant than adult males in all 7 years (1.6-4.2 females per male). Biased sex ratios were not found among juveniles. Differences between North America and Europe in the sex ratios of adult Black-necked Grebes at moulting sites may be explained by the much larger American moulting sites, which would facilitate an unbiased sex ratio in North America, but not in Europe. Moulting sites in Europe may reach carrying capacity because of their smaller size, forcing the late migrating individuals (adult females and juveniles) to move longer distances to sites farther from breeding areas, such us the Odiel salt-marshes.

Parenting strategies can be flexible within a species, and may have varying fitness effects. Understanding this flexibility and its fitness consequences is important for understanding why parenting strategies evolve. Here, we investigate the fitness consequences of flexible parenting in the burying beetle Nicrophorus orbicollis, a species known for its advanced provisioning behaviour of regurgitated vertebrate carrion to offspring by both sexes. We show that even when a parent is freely allowed to abandon the carcass at any point in time, biparental post-hatching care is the most common pattern of care adopted in N. orbicollis. Furthermore, two parents together raised more offspring than single parents of either sex, showing that the presence of the male can directly influences parental fitness even in the absence of competitors. This contrasts with studies in other species of burying beetle, where biparental families do not differ in offspring number. This may explain why biparental care is more common in N. orbicollis than in other burying beetles. We suggest how fitness benefits of two parents may play a role in the evolution and maintenance of flexible biparental care in N. orbicollis.

In birds, the frequency with which the parents feed the young can vary considerably. Because of sexual differences in the begging behaviour and/or differences in the food requirements of the nestlings, brood sex ratio (BSR) is an important factor that may influence parental provisioning behaviour. Disparities in the quantity and quality of prey received by the sexes have been reported in a range of sexually size-dimorphic birds. However, to our knowledge, no study has evaluated prey composition delivery to nestlings in relation to BSR in a non-dimorphic size bird species. Because BSR influences provisioning rate in dimorphic and non-size dimorphic species and because in dimorphic species, BSR influences prey composition delivered to the nest, we hypothesised that similar to dimorphic species, BSR may influence prey composition delivered to nestlings in non-size dimorphic species. We quantify parental provisioning rate and prey composition of prey delivered to nestlings in relation to BSR in the Thorn-tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda) a non-dimorphic and altricial passerine bird. At the population level, we found that Thorn-tailed Rayadito mothers delivered more insect larvae to the nest when compared to the father, who provided the brood with a diet more diverse in composition. However, when we considered BSR, mothers delivered a greater quantity of arachnida and lepidoptera items (high-quality foods) in male-biased BSR. In addition, nestling weight gain increased in line with the proportion of high-quality food in the diet. Our results suggest that when considering non-dimorphic species, there may be more subtle, but nevertheless important, differences, in explaining parental care behaviour in species with bi-parental care. In birds, the frequency with which the parents feed the young can vary considerably. Because of sexual differences in the begging behaviour and/or differences in the food requirements of the nestlings, brood sex ratio is an important factor that may influence parental provisioning behaviour in sexual size species. For the first time, we evaluated prey composition delivery to nestlings in relation to BSR in a non-size dimorphic bird species. We found that the mother of the Thorn-tailed Rayadito delivered a greater quantity of lepidoptera and arachnida (high-quality food) items in a male-biased brood. In addition, nestling weight gain increased with the proportion of high-quality food in the diet. Our results suggest that in non-dimorphic species, there may be more subtle, but nevertheless important, differences in explaining parental care behaviour in species with bi-parental care.

Biparental care involves multiple forms of care and is organized between males and females in diverse ways. When this organization varies among closely related species, there are potential insights into both the evolutionary lability of sex roles and the factors that stabilize biparental care. Recent work on burying beetles suggests stark differences among species in which parent, if either, is specialized for defending the nest and brood. I investigated the relative ability of single male and female parents to both raise and defend offspring in two additional species. In contests, male Nicrophorus marginatus were more successful than females, both as resident defenders and as intruders. Defenders also had more success against same‐sex intruders than opposite‐sex intruders, and injuries were more common in same‐sex encounters, evidence that sexually selected infanticide influenced decisions about defense. When residents excluded intruders from the nest, males and females produced broods of similar size. In N. defodiens, males and females were also equally successful in rearing offspring, but, in contrast to N. marginatus, neither sex was more successful in contests. These findings and a review of earlier work suggest that despite many similarities in caregiving within this genus, species have diverged in sex‐role specialization of brood defense (male‐biased, female‐biased, and sex‐neutral). I hypothesize that variation in competitive environments alters selection on body size and defense specialization, but that this does not have qualitative effects on the stability of biparental care in this genus.