Qualitative research: Part one – Philosophies

<div class="WordSection1"><p>I am honored for being an alumnus of KEMC, and am delighted to write this editorial for the Annals. I have, ever since done my research and taught qualitative methods, felt that clinical methods are quite akin to qualitative research. Then, why only few clinical researchers use qualitative methods? A witness to this assumption is the research published in the Annals. In this treatise, I try to identify some parallels between the two types of methods and argue for the clinicians to invest in learning qualitative research methods to practice clinical methods well.</p><p> Qualitative research is to identify and interpret issues from the perspective of participants, their experience of: illness or disability, using health service, and to appreciate the meanings they give to the behaviour, events or objects in the context of their social and cultural norms. In this type of research, the emphasis is on exploring the associations and understanding the phenomenon in its holism; and not, like in quantitative research, from an outsider’s perspective and for certain specific aspects.<sup>1</sup> It requires participants with specific characteristics, selected purposely that can best inform the research topic. More participants, identified inductively during data collection, are added to develop full and multiple perspectives about the cases.<sup>2</sup></p><p> No preset data collection tool is used, instead qualitative researcher guided by a research question acts as an instrument, since the line of enquiry he changes during data collection as new understanding is gained and/or the situation changes.<sup>3</sup> The data for research is derived from the observation, interviews or verbal interactions, focus group discussions, document reviews, life histories etc. and the researcher asks why, how and under what circumstances things occur; and not just what, where and when. It is recorded in words or pictures and log book is used to record notes arising from interviews, observations, extracts from documents etc.</p><p> In health care settings patients are the subjects for clinical methods. The clinician, even prior to any verbal communication, observes the patient, e.g. for his gait and appearance. If in a bed or examination couch, his posture could give some clue to the illness. Inspection, a clinical method, is like systematic observation, which is qualitative method, should be holistic. In my third year during bedside teaching, Professor (late) Rashid Ahmed Qureshi said, <em>“patient has come to you as a whole and not his stomach in a tray”</em>, when a student straight went to examine abdomen of a patient with acute abdomen. History taking, another clinical method, is like conducting semi structured in depth interview – a qualitative research method. In both disciplines, we are told, <em>“not to ask leading, but follow up and probing questions”; </em>and Professor (late) Alamgir Khan, while teaching clinical methods, would add, <em>“if a good history is taken, you will establish diagnosis in over 65% of cases”. </em>Likewise, as part of history taking, documents related to patient’s illness history and treatment are reviewed similar to document review in qualitative research.</p><p> The two approaches however differ in how the data is analysed. In clinical practice, diagnosis is established based on the pathophysiological knowledge or patient’s clinical condition is discussed in clinicopathological conference.<sup>4</sup> On the other hand, qualitative research employs meaning based data analysis, whereby the qualitative data is transformed into some form of explanation, understanding or interpretation of people and situation that is investigated.<sup>5,6</sup></p><p> In conclusion, the history, the observation and the review of document related to patient are since obtainned using qualitative methods, the clinician trained in these methods could not only conduct these methods well but also interpret the data to identify and detect obstacles to the change in clinical condition and the reasons why improvement does or does not occur.<sup>7</sup> Finally, while it is heartening that research forums are organised in the institutions affiliated with KEMU, in order the research is richer, the researchers’ skills in qualitative research methods should be built.</p></div>

The purpose of this focused issue is to advance understanding of qualitative research methods in the international business context. Debates on qualitative research methods in the key international business (IB) journals have been rare. There has been no focused issue on this topic previously, either in mir or in other journals in the field, making this a 'special' issue. During the process of editing a recent handbook on qualitative research methods (Marschan-Piekkari/Welch 2004), we realized that while this collection covered many topics, often for the first time in the IB field, there were many others still outstanding. There was thus scope for continuing a dialogue about qualitative methods in the IB research community. The challenge of making qualitative research count in the quantitative world of IB remains. Qualitative research is difficult to define, since the term encompasses many different research traditions, research strategies and methods for data collection and analysis (Prasad 2005). A typical definition is that everything non-numerical is qualitative research (Marschan-Piekkari/Welch 2004, p. 19). However, even this very simplistic definition soon breaks down, since research strategies which are typically considered to be qualitative, such as case studies, can combine numerical with non-numerical data (Hurmerinta-Peltomaki/Nummela 2004). There is also no clear divide between qualitative and quantitative research in terms of research traditions, with much qualitative research in management and IB sharing the positivist assumptions of quantitative research (Prasad/Prasad 2002). This focused issue is not about reporting the empirical findings of IB studies applying qualitative methods; rather it is about the process of undertaking qualitative research in the IB field. Of course, there is a large volume of literature on qualitative research methods already. However, we would argue that the IB context warrants special treatment. As the authors of this focused issue discuss, the distinctiveness of the field stems from its multiple linguistic and cultural settings; organizational complexity; and its intellectual roots in post-War academic institutions in the USA. These issues receive little treatment in general texts on qualitative methodology. There has been some methodological debate in previous issues of mir. Earlier articles in mircan be grouped into three categories: first, reviews of existing methodological practices in IB publications (e.g., Cavusgil/Das 1997, Nasif et al. 1991); second, proposals for new quantitative techniques (e.g., the use of key informants in cross-cultural studies, as proposed by Lenartowicz and Roth 2004 and a linguistic-based measure of cultural distance as developed by West and Graham 2004); and third, calls for new methodological approaches (Boddewyn/Iyer 1999). The absence of qualitative research methods in this debate perhaps reflects the limited amount of empirical qualitative research published in this journal. A recent analysis of mir issues between 1990 and 1999 revealed that only 5 percent of articles published in this period used qualitative methods (Welch/Welch 2004). This focused issue is therefore a response to those, such as Boddewyn and Iyer (1999) in this journal, who have called for alternatives to surveys and secondary data analysis. This focused issue attracted 39 submissions from more than 15 countries. Given that there have been limited outlets for methodological articles in IB, this is a considerable number. It perhaps suggests a level of interest to which IB journals have not responded to date. Of the total number of submissions, 11 were selected for review. On the basis of reviewers' comments, six of these papers were ultimately rejected. The final five papers underwent two and, in some cases, up to four rounds of revisions. In selecting the articles, we used the following criteria: appropriateness of the topic for the focused issue; demonstrated knowledge of IB and methodological literature; quality of argument; originality and innovativeness of the contribution to IB methodology; organization and clarity of the paper; and potential application to research practice in IB. …

Qualitative research has gained greater attention in medical research, but it might seem to be unscientific because qualitative and quantitative research methods are grounded in different paradigm. In this article, we introduce three major qualitative research methods frequently used in studies of patient-doctor communications: 1) in-depth interviews; 2) focus group interviews; and, 3) semi-structured interviews. Each qualitative research method has different or common advantages and disadvantages, and which methods should be used depends on the study objectives. Qualitative research and quantitative research are complementary: while quantitative research explains the prevalence or variation of an issue, qualitative research explains the reasons or processes of that prevalence or variation. Combination of the two methods enables the gathering of more comprehensive and explanatory results.

In the current era of artificial intelligence, large language models such as ChatGPT and BARD are being increasingly used for various applications, such as language translation, text generation, and human-like conversation. The fact that these models consist of large amounts of data, including many different opinions and perspectives, could introduce the possibility of a new qualitative research approach: Due to the probabilistic character of their answers, “interviewing” these large language models could give insights into public opinions in a way that otherwise only interviews with large groups of subjects could deliver. However, it is not yet clear if qualitative content analysis research methods can be applied to interviews with these models. Evaluating the applicability of qualitative research methods to interviews with large language models could foster our understanding of their abilities and limitations. In this paper, we examine the applicability of qualitative content analysis research methods to interviews with ChatGPT in English, ChatGPT in German, and BARD in English on the relevance of computer science in K-12 education, which was used as an exemplary topic. We found that the answers produced by these models strongly depended on the provided context, and the same model could produce heavily differing results for the same questions. From these results and the insights throughout the process, we formulated guidelines for conducting and analyzing interviews with large language models. Our findings suggest that qualitative content analysis research methods can indeed be applied to interviews with large language models, but with careful consideration of contextual factors that may affect the responses produced by these models. The guidelines we provide can aid researchers and practitioners in conducting more nuanced and insightful interviews with large language models. From an overall view of our results, we generally do not recommend using interviews with large language models for research purposes, due to their highly unpredictable results. However, we suggest using these models as exploration tools for gaining different perspectives on research topics and for testing interview guidelines before conducting real-world interviews.

Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Qualitative and mixed methods research in trials

Background. The use of qualitative research (QR) methods is recommended as good practice in discrete choice experiments (DCEs). This study investigated the use and reporting of QR to inform the design and/or interpretation of healthcare-related DCEs and explored the perceived usefulness of such methods. Methods. DCEs were identified from a systematic search of the MEDLINE database. Studies were classified by the quantity of QR reported (none, basic, or extensive). Authors (n = 91) of papers reporting the use of QR were invited to complete an online survey eliciting their views about using the methods. Results. A total of 254 healthcare DCEs were included in the review; of these, 111 (44%) did not report using any qualitative methods; 114 (45%) reported “basic” information; and 29 (11%) reported or cited “extensive” use of qualitative methods. Studies reporting the use of qualitative methods used them to select attributes and/or levels (n = 95; 66%) and/or pilot the DCE survey (n = 26; 18%). Popular qualitative methods included focus groups (n = 63; 44%) and interviews (n = 109; 76%). Forty-four studies (31%) reported the analytical approach, with content (n = 10; 7%) and framework analysis (n = 5; 4%) most commonly reported. The survey identified that all responding authors (n = 50; 100%) found that qualitative methods added value to their DCE study, but many (n = 22; 44%) reported that journals were uninterested in the reporting of QR results. Conclusions. Despite recommendations that QR methods be used alongside DCEs, the use of QR methods is not consistently reported. The lack of reporting risks the inference that QR methods are of little use in DCE research, contradicting practitioners’ assessments. Explicit guidelines would enable more clarity and consistency in reporting, and journals should facilitate such reporting via online supplementary materials.

Democratic South Africa is engulfed in violent, unethical and anti-social practices and ways of life, which collectively signify a deficit in the moral foundation of our society. These realities suggest an urgency to bring about a new order of socially responsible and civic-minded citizens, beginning in the earliest years. The Early Childhood Development National Curriculum Framework for children from birth to four (2015), however, appears ineffective in achieving this outcome. Its pedagogic approach excludes the equal and simultaneous development of all the human domains. The study, therefore, proposes a holistic Integral Education approach with Ubuntu values for whole child development. Its aim was to determine the extent to which this approach in Early Childhood Development could contribute to the development of social responsibility and civic mindedness. The study adopted exploratory, developmental and intervention designs with qualitative and quantitative (mixed method) research methodologies. The locations of the study were Umbumbulu on the KwaZulu-Natal South Coast in South Africa and Adhchini Village, in New Delhi, India. Purposive, stratified and nonprobability sampling was used in the selection of the South African sample in the exploratory phase. This comprised ECD staff, parents and grandparents from six selected ECD sites, as well as key informants. This phase used qualitative research methods of focus group and individual interviews, content analysis of practitioners’ journals and their observations. In the developmental phase, an Integral Education programme with Ubuntu values was developed and implemented in three of the sample ECD sites. Finally, in the evaluation phase, qualitative and quantitative research methods were used to evaluate the implementation of the programme. Learnings from two preschools in India are incorporated in the study. The research findings indicated gaps in the ECD curriculum regarding explicit values that promote social responsibility and a lack of whole child development in its pedagogic approach. Based on these findings, a curriculum framework for integral education at the early childhood level was developed. Finally, the study demonstrated that an effective whole child approach to preschool education, as evidenced in IE with Ubuntu values, has the capacity to develop a new generation of balanced and compassionate citizens for participatory democracy in South Africa.

PurposeThe central purpose of the research presented in this paper is to synthesize the current state of the field in qualitative methods in international organizational change research and to provide a call to researchers to use this type of methodology more frequently. The intent is to provide readers with an overview of how and when qualitative research methods should be used for investigating important theoretical and empirical questions in management research.Design/methodology/approachThe authors developed several working hypotheses based on their own experiences in using an extensive array of qualitative methods in organizational change research. They coupled this with an extensive literature search to understand how these methodologies have been used to date. The findings from the literature search were analysed to uncover where there are gaps in the work and how organizational change and other management scholars can effectively use qualitative methods to advance their understanding of international change phenomena, given the unique questions and situations confronted in various contexts. The authors include an array of examples to show how qualitative research has been used to successfully test theories, uncover new phenomena, find connections between various situations, and provide a deep understanding of contextual influences on organizational change.FindingsThe authors' findings include several examples and ideas of how and when scholars can use qualitative methods to advance understanding of international change phenomena. This provides a much richer, deeper, and more nuanced understanding of many of the phenomena and issues under investigation by employing the more observational and human‐centric techniques available through the use of qualitative methods. Several of the implications of context are only observable through some of the qualitative methods discussed, such as ethnography, case studies, interviews, observations, and their respective analysis methods. Qualitative research can be employed successfully and fruitfully in organization studies' contexts to: help uncover new organizational phenomena; build and test theories of change; and create new methods that researchers can use specifically in international change studies.Originality/valueThe paper is the only one of its kind, bringing a cohesive and focused review of qualitative methods studies in international organizational change research. It provides readers and the field with a menu of ways to effectively use qualitative methods and a description of where and how to bring in these methods to answer questions and uncover new themes that are not effectively dealt with through the use of more commonly employed quantitative methods and analyses.

There are a growing number of authors arguing the case for integrating qualitative and quantitative research methods within research projects. A study was carried out to identify the amount of published work integrating qualitative and quantitative research methods and to assess the quality of the outcomes of studies purporting to use both methods. Electronic searches of the health literature and critical appraisal of a random sample of papers retrieved was undertaken as well as a hand search of five journals. Over one-quarter (130, or 27%) of the papers from the electronic searches were theoretical discussions about the merits of mixing research methods, 22% (110) were papers purporting to have used mixed methodologies. Critical appraisal of the sample papers showed the qualitative and quantitative elements varied. Where the results of the different parts of the study were integrated, the outcomes from the research were more convincing than they might otherwise have been. Other papers had little discussion about the balance or integration of the different types of results. Hand searching revealed very few mixed method papers. Further work is required to refine and develop ways to mix methods to generate the evidence required to support practice.

This study was undertaken to explore the factors that could affect to the emotional exhaustion and turnover intention of Information Technology (IT) employees in Vietnam. This study was done through two steps including qualitative and quantitative research methods. In qualitative research method, nine information technology employees were interviewed to assess the clarity of words, the content of the questions and the ability to answer the questions of the readers. Formal quantitative research was executed by interviewing a sample collected by convenient method, using a questionaire, including 194 information technology employees in the areas of HoChiMinh city. The data was used to assess the scales and test the hypotheses. Cronbach Alpha coefficient analysis, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), regression analysis were used in this section. The results showed some differences compared to the initial theoretical model. Only some elements in the theoretical model affect the emotional exhaustion, in which IT job demands is the factor that have the most powerful affect. Study results contribute additions to the theoretical basis of human resource management, by understanding more about the factors that have impact on the emotional exhaustion and turnover intention of information technology employees. Thereby, the results also provide additional facilities for the management of information technology enterprises so that the managers can make appropriate decisions in order to preserve the IT human resources.

The editors of this book are medical/physician anthropologists working in the Department of Family Medicine at the University of Connecticut.The other sixteen contributors to this very readable and informative book are all involved in research and are working in Departments of Family Medicine or in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics.The book itself evolved from a work-shop on qualitative research held in Quebec in May 1989.It was during the 80's that qualitative research methods were developed by family medicine practitioners, and their complementarity to quantitative research methods explored.Doing Qualitative Research is volume three in a series of books on research methods for primary care.Its aim is to make qualitative research more accessible to primary health care researchers.Its usefulness certainly goes beyond this.The studies described in this book shed light on three important questions.How can health-seeking behaviour be understood?.How do primary health care providers become what they are?What goes on when primary health care seekers encounter clinical providers?As one reads this book and becomes familiar with the methods described, it becomes evident that these research methods can also be applied to other related questions.'Primary health care' can be replaced with 'mental health care' for example.Thus the scope of this book extends beyond qualitative research methods in Family Medicine.In this book the editors provide a 'smorgasboard' of qualitative approaches.Clear descriptions of the most important aspects of qualitative research are given.This includes data collection strategies (Chs.2-4), the specifics for different types of analysis (Chs.5-10).and reports on completed studies .Each of these chapters with the aid of really good concrete examples describes a specific qualitative method, the context in which it is most useful, and how its trustworthiness can be assessed.These eleven chapters are neatly sandwiched between the first chapter, giving an excellent overview of research approaches, and a final reflective chapter that includes a reminder that the 'sciences of the spirit speak to a different part of us than the sciences of nature'.As a newcomer to qualitative research I found that the first chapter was a very helpful preparation for the richness that follows.The many figures and tables provide helpful summaries that are also

The quality of qualitative research conducted by Master's students and lecturers at STIE Wirabakti Makassar has been lacking due to insufficient mastery of qualitative research methods. This Community Service Activity (PKM) aims to enhance the research quality by organizing a Qualitative Research Methods workshop. The PKM involves disseminating and training in Qualitative Research Methods, with material introduction conducted online and practical training held offline. The outcomes reveal a notable improvement in participants' understanding and skills in employing qualitative research methods. The primary objective of this initiative is to address challenges in crafting theses or scientific papers by offering various research methodology choices. The participants of this service were Master's students and lecturers from STIE Wirabakti Makassar. The workshop combined offline and online sessions conducted via Zoom. The workshop incorporated material presentations and interactive question-and-answer segments to gauge participants' comprehension. The results, deduced from pre-test and post-test evaluations, indicate participants' enhanced grasp of qualitative research methodologies, especially diverse paradigms introduced by facilitators. The clear and practical material presentation, supplemented with concrete examples, contributed to the participants' comprehensive understanding. The successful implementation of this initiative is anticipated to elevate the caliber of research conducted by students and lecturers, enabling them to make informed choices regarding qualitative research methods.

Metadiscourse marker is one of determining indicators of the quality of the writers� writing. Metadiscourse markers enable the writers to interact with the readers effectively. What commonly happens to many undergraduate students studying English as a foreign language is that they are not able to develop an engagement between themselves, their texts, and their readers. Thus, this study investigates the types of metadiscourse markers used by Unimus EFL learners in final project introduction sections, and markers that are frequently used by them in their writing. By using qualitative and quantitative research method, seven introduction sections of final project of Unimus EFL learners focusing on qualitative and qualitative research methods were chosen purposively. As result, the study revealed that in writing introduction sections, the students used various metadiscourse markers, including interactive resources (transitions, frame markers, endophoric markers, evidentials, and code glosses) and interactional resources (hedges, boosters, attitude markers, engagement markers, and self-mensions). Among those categories, interactive resources were found to be frequently used by the learners rather than interactional resources. It means that the writers tended to give attention to and guided the readers through the text by establishing their interpretations explicitly rather than involving the readers in the argument through the use of markers in interactional dimension.

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