Reanalysis in the Russian past tense

RULES AND SCHEMAS IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF THE ENGLISH PAST TENSE Joan L. BybeeDan I. Slobin State University of New York,University of California, BuffaloBerkeley Consistent error patterns in English past-tense forms are reported for three age groups: preschoolers, 8-10-year-olds, and adults. It is argued that, although irregular forms are rote-learned, speakers make generalizations about such forms. Such a generalization is defined as a schema which describes general phonological properties of a morphological class, and is used in organizing and accessing the lexicon. Schemas for the English past tense develop and change with age, yielding implications for both acquisitional and diachronic theory.* 1. English verbal morphology is rather restricted, compared to that of a fullfledged inflectional language, since it offers only four inflectional morphemes: the 3rd singular present, the past tense, the past participle, and the progressive. Thus it provides no opportunity to study the complex interaction between intersecting inflectional categories within a paradigm, such as person, number, mood, and tense. It does, however, provide the opportunity for a study of a different sort: although English has a demonstrably productive process of suffixation for past-tense formation, in the form of -ed, it also has many irregular verbs whose past tense is formed in some cases without suffixation, and in others with changes of vowel (or, less commonly, consonant) in the stem. These irregular verbs are relatively few in number. Bloch 1947 identifies about 200 (several of which are archaic), but thousands of verbs form their past tense by adding an allomorph of -ed. Although irregular verbs are relatively insignificant as to type frequency, the picture is quite different when token frequency is considered: these are among the most frequent verbs of the language . Of the 30 most frequent past-tense forms (Kucera & Francis 1967), 22 are irregular. The situation changes radically in the second 30 most frequent past-tense forms, where 8 are irregular. From the child learner's point of view, irregular verbs are also prominent: Slobin 1971 finds that, in 49 hours of adult speech to Roger Brown's subject Eve, between the ages of 18 and 26 months, irregular past-tense forms account for 292 of the past-tense tokens, while regular verbs comprise only 99. Thus irregular past-tense forms constitute an important core of English verbal morphology. * A number of people contributed to the research reported here, and we would like to thank them for their help. Susan Ervin-Tripp, Roger Brown, and Zell Greenberg made their spontaneous speech data available to us; Zell Greenberg tested the preschool children and analysed the results; Amy Strage and Ann Eisenberg tested the adults; Mr. B. Harris and his third-grade class at Cornell Elementary School, Albany, CA, played the 'verb game' with us; Tanya Renner, Carol Lynn Moder, and BongHee Choi helped with the statistics; and Brody Hooper let us use his verb forms and his friends. While this research was being conducted, loan Bybee held a Postdoctoral Research Training Fellowship from the Social Science Research Council. This research was also supported by the University of California Committee on Research and the Institute of Human Learning, University of California, Berkeley. 265 266LANGUAGE, VOLUME 58, NUMBER 2 (1982) The difficulty presented by these irregular verbs, both for the learner and for the linguist, is that so many different irregularities occur. Though most irregulars are characterized by a vowel change, a number of different changes occur, e.g. stick/stuck, sing/sang, keep/kept, grow/grew. In addition, some verbs add a t or d; and some have consonant changes as well, e.g. makelmade. Jespersen 1942 lists ten classes of irregular past-tense formations, and dozens of sub-classes, while Bloch comes up with twenty conjugation types. Such variety increases the difficulty of the learning task, but at the same time provides us with an opportunity to investigate the interaction of rule and rote-learning in morphology. It is clear that some rote-learning is necessary in acquiring irregular past-tense forms: the pair go/went could not be learned in any other way. What is not so clear is whether speakers must learn all irregulars by rote, or whether...

Together with the use of double negatives, the use of non‐standard verb forms is generally stigmatised in all varieties of English, including Australian English. But although we all know, for example, that some speakers use done for the past tense of do, or went for the past participle of go, we have little systematic knowledge regarding the nature or extent of this variation. Shnukal's (1978) study of Cessnock English is the only Australian study which attempts to quantify the occurrence of non‐standard past tense and past participle verb forms, or to explore systematically the linguistic and non‐linguistic factors which influence this variation, while Cheshire (1982) provides an investigation of variation in present tense verb forms in Reading English. This paper attempts to fill this gap by examining the variation in the lexical verb apparent in the speech of Inner‐Sydney adolescents. The focus of this paper will be on variation in irregular past tense and past participle forms. Two main quest...

This article deals with the peculiarities of the translation of non-finite forms of the verb from English into Russian in the belles-lettres. This problem is not studied well enough in modern scientific literature, while when translating non-finite forms into Russian one can face some difficulties.Sometimes while translating a text the accent falls on the lexical aspect, first of all on the shades of meaning, but sometimes invisible syntactic mistakes lead not only to stylistic mistakes, but also the misrepresentation of the meaning. Non-finite forms can be used as a subject, a predicative, part of a compound verbal and modal predicate, an object, an adverbial modifier and an attribute.The infinitive has some nominal characteristics and can be used as a subject, part of a compound nominal predicate, an object and an attribute. As for its verbal characteristics it can take a direct object and has tense and voice distinguishes. As a subject, predicative and adverbial modifiers, it can be translated with the help of the infinitive or a noun. Complexes with the infinitive can be translated by subordinate clauses. If the infinitive is passive, the Russian subordinate clause should have either a passive construction or a non-finite form. If the infinitive is perfect the predicate in the Russian sentence should be used in the past tense. If the perfect infinitive has a passive form the predicative in the Russian subordinate clause should be used in the past tense and have passive voice or a non-finite form.Complex object can be translated by a subordinate clause, while complex subject can be translated only by a compound sentence.The gerund is such a non-finite form, which cannot be found in the Russian language. It can be translated into the Russian language with the help of the infinitive, a verbal noun or a subordinate clause.The combination of the gerund with a possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case form an equivalent of a subordinate clause.Russian present participles can be used only as an attribute, when used in the active voice, while English participles active can be used not only as an attribute, but also as an adverbial modifier. When translating a text, one should pay attention to the place of the participle in the sentence. If it is an attribute it is translated by a Russian participle, if it is used as an adverbial modifier, it is translated by a Russian adverbial participle in the imperative aspect.Participial constructions have no any equivalents in the Russian language, so they should be translated by an adverbial subordinate clause.

This study examines the categorial status, syntactic derivation, and tense of active participles in an urban variety of Jordanian Arabic. It is shown that unlike in other Arabic varieties, active participles in Jordanian Arabic fall into three distinct categories (namely, nominal, adjectival, and verbal) with respect to their morphophonological, syntactic and semantic structures. Moreover, it is argued that active participles are not lexically underspecified or homophonous, but are rather derived distinctively in the syntax. This study also explores tense in active participle clauses. Verbless clauses with adjectival and nominal active participles as the only predicates solely project present tense; a past or future tense is available only if a copula is involved. In contrast, clauses with verbal active participles, which are morphologically unmarked for tense, are shown to license temporal adverbs of different time references. It is argued that such clauses project a covert agreement tense whose time frame is established by time adverbs.

Mediaeval Spanish texts display a range of constructions which are formed by a present, past or future tense of the verb haber and the past participle of a transitive verb. In these constructions the direct object may precede or follow the participle; the participle sometimes agrees with the object, sometimes not: las batallas (que) ha vencidas/vencido, ha vencidas/vencido las batallas. During the thirteenth century an alternative type—tener +past participle—begins to appear with increasing frequency; it regularly indicates a state and, where tener is used, it is standard practice for past participle and direct object to agree: la tienen cercada, los tenie atributados. It is generally accepted that agreement is particularly favoured in the north-eastern dialects of the peninsula, but to the best of my knowledge no systematic attempt has been made to account for the syntactical, historical or geographical factors which affect past participle agreement in Old Spanish.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has shown promise in enhancing English as a second language (ESL) writing skills by providing personalized feedback and targeted corrections, thereby facilitating improved grammar and composition proficiency. Despite the potential of AI tools like ChatGPT, their impact on common writing errors in ESL contexts has yet to be explored. This study employed a quasi-experimental design to compare the efficacy of ChatGPT’s mobile application feedback against traditional teacher feedback in a senior secondary public school in India. Over eight weeks, the experimental group received feedback on their writing error corrections through the ChatGPT application, while the control group received feedback from teachers. Additionally, participants’ attitudes towards using ChatGPT for language learning were assessed through a questionnaire administered post-intervention to 132 students. Data was collected using pre- and post-tests that involved writing stories based on pictures. The study results demonstrated that the experimental group significantly improved writing proficiency, showing a reduction in common errors (third-person singular present, past tense, progressive, past participle, plural, possessive, comparative, and superlative) compared to the control group. Furthermore, most students preferred AI feedback, associating it with noticeable improvements in their writing skills and grammatical accuracy. These findings support the integration of AI tools like ChatGPT into language learning curricula as effective supplements to traditional teaching methods, offering personalized and immediate corrections that enhance learning outcomes.

The Old Geg perfect system has a morphology resembling that of neighbouring Romance perfects (‘have’/‘be’ + past participle). It is a major sub-system of the verbal system, using nearly all synthetic forms of the auxiliary. Moreover, there are surcomposé forms. The present perfect usually has a resultative or existential reading, other readings being very rare. The past tenses of the perfect system indicate anteriority to a reference point in past time. Among the surcomposé forms, there is a pluperfect of the perfect, which indicates a second, deeper layer of anteriority. The non-indicative forms of the perfect system serve as past-tense counterparts to the respective non-indicative categories of the synthetic verbal system. Finally, the Old Geg present perfect gives rise to the so-called admirative, a present expressing the speaker’s surprise, disbelief, irony or doubt, or his or her unwillingness to vouch for the truth of the statement given.

Johan Turi’s Muitalus samiid birra (An Account of the Sami) first appeared in 1910. It was the first time in history that a Sami person had written a book about the Sami in Sami language. In this article, I analyze the language of Johan Turi in the newly re-edited text of his book, particularly with regard to the order and position of auxiliaries. There are three kinds of auxiliaries in North Sami language, one of which is used in tense phrases (Aux), i.e. leat ’to be’. The other two are modals (Mod) and negative auxiliaries (Neg). In contrast to the other two types of auxiliaries, the negative does not inflect for tense. The base structure of a declarative North Sami finite clause is a composition of a main verb (V) and one or more auxiliaries in the hierarchy: Neg > Aux > Mod > V. The auxiliary (Aux) selects for a verb phrase (VP) with the category past participle or progressive, while the modal (Mod) selects for a VP with the category infinitive. The negative auxiliary selects for one category in present tense and another (past participle) in the past tense. My study of the language of Muitalus confirms the hierarchy of the base structure of the finite clauses and the selection rules of the complements as well. Turi’s text contains relatively few deviations from this pattern, always with pragmatic motivations.

This research was primarily conducted to find out the total amount of grammatical errors and to analyze kinds of morphological and syntactical errors made by the fifth semester students of English Language Education Study Program of Catholic University of Saint Thomas in the Academic Year of 2018/2019 in their English compositions. There are 22 students as the research subject of the study. The writers collected the data by asking the students to write down an English composition entitled My Unforgettable Experience. The grammatical errors made by the students were analyzed based on linguistic category taxonomy (morphological and syntactical errors) proposed by Dulay et al (1982). Based on the data analysis, it was found that there are 400 grammatical errors altogether (277 morphological errors and 123 syntactical errors) made by the research subject in their English compositions. In morphological errors, the students dominantly made errors in past tense, namely 247 errors (89.2%). Next, the students made 14 errors in definite article (5.0%), 10 errors in third singular verb (3.6%), 2 errors in comparative adjective/adverb (0.7%), 2 errors in regular/irregular verbs (0.7%), 1 error in possessive case (0.4%), and 1 error in past participle (0.4%). In syntactical errors, the students dominantly made errors in transformation, namely 42 errors (34.15%). Next, the students made 30 errors in verb construction (24.39%), 25 errors in word order (20.33%), 24 errors in verb phrase (19.51%), and 2 errors in noun phrase (1.62%). It is advisable that the students had better master English grammar very well and need to equip themselves with at least a number of fundamental abilities such as how to use punctuations and construct simple sentences in the English language correctly, and the English teachers/lecturers had better explain English grammar and teach how to construct simple sentences in the English language correctly.
 
 Keywords: Error analysis, grammatical errors, morphological errors, syntactical errors, English compositions

This book deals with atypical predicate-argument relations. Although the relations between predicates, especially verbal, and their arguments have been long studied, most studies are concerned with typical telic verbs in the past tense, indicative mood, active voice, with all arguments expressed. Recently, linguists have become interested in other types of predicate-argument relations displaying atypical properties, be they morphological or syntactic, in one language or cross-linguistically. The articles in this book investigate some of these: argument marking with some special groups of verbs, arguments not foreseen in the verb valency and contributed by the construction, verbs in idiomatic constructions, valency-changing operations, arguments in thetic sentences or in participle constructions etc. The authors work within different theoretical frameworks and on various languages, from more current languages like English, Spanish, French or German, to Hebrew or lamaholot, an Austronesian language.

This study examines variation in the use and interpretation of the perfective (pfv) aspect in negated past tense contexts across East Slavic and selected West and Southwest Slavic languages. Unlike West and Southwest Slavic, where the pfv + neg in past tense contexts allows for an interpretation denying the existence of the event at any past time, East Slavic uniquely interprets the pfv aspect in these contexts as indicating that the agent either planned but failed to realize the event or initiated it but failed to complete it. We account for this by assuming that negation operates either high (¬TP), as sentential negation, or low (¬vP), over the event domain. In East Slavic, the interaction of the pfv aspect with the past tense prevents high negation and enforces low negation, resulting in inhibited event reading. This reading implies that the event was expected or initiated but ultimately unrealized. We argue that the semantics of the pfv aspect in East Slavic parallels the semantics of specific indefinites in the nominal domain. The aspect head introduces a temporal variable t, which, via a choice function, restricts the domain of existential quantification over t to a singleton set, presupposing the existence of t, which cannot be canceled by high negation. Consequently, in negated pfv past tense contexts in East Slavic, negation scopes over the event domain giving rise to special interpretative constraints in past tense perfective contexts with negation.

This article examines the syntax of the verb in the neo-Aramaic dialect of the Jews of Arbel (Iraqi Kurdistan). This dialect belongs to the group known as Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA). It exhibits a number of features in its verbal system that distinguish it from other dialects in this group. As in other NENA dialects, past and present tense verbs are formed from bases that correspond, respectively, to the passive and active participles of earlier Aramaic. A distinctive feature of the Arbel dialect is the use of the pre-verbal particle la to express aspectual nuances. This particle also has a discourse function.

Passive voice remains a key grammatical structure for English learners, particularly in academic writing, yet many students struggle to use it accurately. This study analyzes the types of passive voice errors made by 19 fifth-semester students in the English Education Study Program at Tadulako University. Specifically, it addresses two questions: (1) How do classroom interaction patterns such as teacher-centered grammar instruction, limited student negotiation of meaning, or feedback practices shape students’ understanding and use of passive voice, and to what extent might these dynamics contribute to the dominance of developmental errors? (2) In what ways do students’ sociocultural backgrounds, prior educational experiences, and exposure to English outside the classroom influence their difficulties with auxiliary verbs and tense agreement, and how do these factors mediate tensions between Indonesian linguistic norms and English academic writing conventions? A quantitative design was employed, with a test focusing on passive constructions in present continuous, past continuous, and past perfect tenses. Students’ responses were categorized using Dulay et al.'s (1982) comparative taxonomy of developmental and interlingual errors. Results revealed developmental errors as the most prevalent (89.9%), mainly involving incorrect auxiliary verbs (is, am, are, being, been), past participle formation, and tense agreement. These findings highlight the need for targeted grammar instruction on auxiliary patterns and participles, alongside enhanced practice, corrective feedback, and adjustments to classroom interactions and sociocultural considerations to boost accuracy.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the relation between black and white speech in the south. If the speech of socioeconomically comparable blacks and whites within the South is investigated, the alleged differences would all but disappear. Atlas methodology is inappropriate, not because it is mistaken or misleading, but because the data were collected for a different purpose and under constraints imposed by the technology of an earlier time. VBE features shared by other varieties of English are not limited to phonology. The use of nonstandard verb forms for the past tense and past participle is one such case. Another shared feature is the deletion of a relative pronoun functioning as subject of the subordinate clause. There are other features of VBE that seem to be unique—that are not found in the speech of white Southerners even of lower social classes.

This study aims to identify, describe and analyze errors committed in the area of inflectional morphemes by the 3rd year EFL students at the College of Education for humanities, Department of English/ College of Education for Humanities/ University of Mosul, during the academic year 2016-2017,. In order to identify the areas of difficulty and find out what makes these areas difficult, errors are classified with reference to the eight types of inflectional morphemes. To that end, Error Analysis Theory; notably, a fused version of the guidelines offered by Corder (1973) and Ellis (2005), is adopted. The mechanism of applying this version of error analysis on the data collected passes through various analytical stages, starting with data collection, identification of the areas of difficulty, description, explanation, and ending with the evaluation of errors. The present study was conducted to find out students’ errors in using inflectional morphemes that include : past tense inflection “ed1”, plural inflection “s”, present participle inflection “ing”,third person singular “s”, past participle “ed2”,possessive inflection “ ’s ”,comparative “er” and superlative inflection “est”. The aim of this study is to find out the errors made by students in using inflectional morphemes, and most importantly, the type of such errors ; whether they are,errors of omission, addition, misinformation, misordering, or those of blending. The subjects of this study were 100 EFL students in third -year at the university of Mosul. The results of the analysis show that the total number of errors found in the students’ essays is 864.The objective outcome of the analysis conducted reveals a number of findings and conclusions; among these are, the percentage of “ed1” morpheme errors comprised 35% of the total types of errors, the second rank is the plural morpheme “s” errors =17%, the ‘ing” morpheme errors= 14%, the third person singular “s” =13%,”ed2” errors=12%,possessive morpheme errors =7%, Finally the comparative “er” and the superlative “est” comprised the lowest rank of percentage ;that is 1%. Based on the findings of this research, it is hoped that it would help other researchers to build up further discussions and researches on errors with broader aspects and different subjects.