Recurrent neural networks for grammatical inference

Large scale artificial neural networks (ANNs) have been widely used in data processing applications. The recurrent neural network (RNN) is a special type of neural network equipped with additional recurrent connections. Such a unique architecture enables the recurrent neural network to remember the past processed information and makes it an expressive model for nonlinear sequence processing tasks. However, the large computation complexity makes it difficult to effectively train a recurrent neural network and therefore significantly limits the research on the recurrent neural network in the last 20 years. In recent years, the use of graphics processing units (GPUs) becomes a significant advance to speed up the training process of large scale neural networks by taking advantage of the massive parallelism capabilities of GPUs. In this paper, we propose an efficient GPU implementation of the large scale recurrent neural network and demonstrate the power of scaling up the recurrent neural network with GPUs. We first explore the potential parallelism of the recurrent neural network and propose a fine-grained two-stage pipeline implementation. Experiment results show that the proposed GPU implementation can achieve 2 ~ 11 x speed-up compared with the basic CPU implementation with the Intel Math Kernel Library. We then use the proposed GPU implementation to scale up the recurrent neural network and improve its performance. The experiment results of the Microsoft Research Sentence Completion Challenge demonstrate that the large scale recurrent network without class layer is able to beat the traditional class-based modest-size recurrent network and achieve an accuracy of 47%, the best result achieved by a single recurrent neural network on the same dataset.

Recurrent neural networks are dynamical network structures which have the capabilities of processing and generating temporal information. To our knowledge the earliest neural network model that processed temporal information was that of MeCulloch and Pitts [McCulloch43]. Kleene [Kleene56] extended this work to show the equivalence of finite automata and McCulloch and Pitts' representation of nerve net activity. Minsky [Minsky67] showed that any hard-threshold neural network could represent a finite state automata and developed a method for actually constructing a neural network finite state automata. However, many different neural network models can be defined as recurrent; for example see [Grossberg82] and [Hopfield82]. Our focus is on discrete-time recurrent neural networks that dynamically process temporal information and follows in the tradition of dynamically (nonautonomous) recurrent network models defined by [Elman90, Jordan86, Narendra90, Pollack91,Tsoi94]. In particular this paper develops a new model, a neural network pushdown automaton (NNPDA), which is a hybrid system that couples a recurrent network to an external stack memory. More importantly, a NNPDA should be capable of learning and recognizing some class of context-free grammars. As such, this model is a significant extension of previous work where neural network finite state automata simulated and learned regular grammars. We explore the capabilities of such a model by inferring automata from sample strings the problem of grammatical inference. It is important to note that our focus is only on that of inference, not of prediction or translation. We will be concerned with problem of inferring an unknown system model based on observing sample strings and not on predicting the next string dement in a sequence. In some ways, our problem can be thought of as one of system identification [Ljung87].

Besides the feedforward neural networks, there are the recurrent networks, where the impulses can be transmitted in both directions due to some reaction connections in these networks. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) are linear or nonlinear dynamic systems. The dynamic behavior presented by the recurrent neural networks can be described both in continuous time, by differential equations and at discrete times by the recurrence relations (difference equations). The distinction between recurrent (or dynamic) neural networks and static neural networks is due to recurrent connections both between the layers of neurons of these networks and within the same layer, too. The aim of this chapter is to describe a Recurrent Fuzzy Neural Network (RFNN) model, whose learning algorithm is based on the Improved Particle Swarm Optimization (IPSO) method.

Brain activity evolves through time, creating trajectories of activity that underlie sensorimotor processing, behavior, and learning and memory. Therefore, understanding the temporal nature of neural dynamics is essential to understanding brain function and behavior. In vivo studies have demonstrated that sequential transient activation of neurons can encode time. However, it remains unclear whether these patterns emerge from feedforward network architectures or from recurrent networks and, furthermore, what role network structure plays in timing. We address these issues using a recurrent neural network (RNN) model with distinct populations of excitatory and inhibitory units. Consistent with experimental data, a single RNN could autonomously produce multiple functionally feedforward trajectories, thus potentially encoding multiple timed motor patterns lasting up to several seconds. Importantly, the model accounted for Weber's law, a hallmark of timing behavior. Analysis of network connectivity revealed that efficiency-a measure of network interconnectedness-decreased as the number of stored trajectories increased. Additionally, the balance of excitation (E) and inhibition (I) shifted toward excitation during each unit's activation time, generating the prediction that observed sequential activity relies on dynamic control of the E/I balance. Our results establish for the first time that the same RNN can generate multiple functionally feedforward patterns of activity as a result of dynamic shifts in the E/I balance imposed by the connectome of the RNN. We conclude that recurrent network architectures account for sequential neural activity, as well as for a fundamental signature of timing behavior: Weber's law.

Based on the measured values of the produced and consumed electrical energy within the electric power system (EPS) for a period of several consecutive years, using recurrent neural networks, future trends in both the production and consumption of electrical energy can be assumed, which makes it possible to predict events in the EPS with a satisfactory accuracy. The input data for recurrent neural networks, which are the subject of this work, represent the measured hourly values of electrical energy generated in hydropower plants and thermal power plants, as well as consumed electrical energy from one EPS for a period of 10 consecutive years. Recurrent neural networks process current data and also use information from previous states. Three Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) recurrent networks were created using the "Pyton" program package, based on previously adapted input data. After completing the network training process, it is shown that the smallest mean error value (MEV), i.e. the deviation of the predicted from the actual values has a recurrent network for thermal power plants. The MEV of the electrical energy consumers network has a slightly higher value, while the MEV of the hydro power plants network has a relatively satisfactory accuracy, but it is significantly higher than the previous two, primarily due to the multitude of parameters that affect the production of electrical energy from the hydro power plants. The paper includes analyze of the influence of input parameters on the prediction error of electrical energy production and consumption.

The effect of nursing care on intracranial pressure in head-injured patients : Hata K, Takarada M, Matsubara M, et al. Jpn J Acute Med 1986;10:1003–1008

Although the potential of the powerful mapping and representational capabilities of recurrent network architectures is generally recognized by the neural network research community, recurrent neural networks have not been widely used for the control of nonlinear dynamical systems, possibly due to the relative ineffectiveness of simple gradient descent training algorithms. Developments in the use of parameter-based extended Kalman filter algorithms for training recurrent networks may provide a mechanism by which these architectures will prove to be of practical value. This paper presents a decoupled extended Kalman filter (DEKF) algorithm for training of recurrent networks with special emphasis on application to control problems. We demonstrate in simulation the application of the DEKF algorithm to a series of example control problems ranging from the well-known cart-pole and bioreactor benchmark problems to an automotive subsystem, engine idle speed control. These simulations suggest that recurrent controller networks trained by Kalman filter methods can combine the traditional features of state-space controllers and observers in a homogeneous architecture for nonlinear dynamical systems, while simultaneously exhibiting less sensitivity than do purely feedforward controller networks to changes in plant parameters and measurement noise.

This chapter investigates the potential of recurrent spiking neurons for classification problems. It presents a hybrid approach based on the paradigm of Reservoir Computing. The practical applications based on recurrent spiking neurons are limited due to the lack of learning algorithms. Most of the previous work in the literature has focused on feed forward networks because computation in these networks is comparatively easy to analyse. The details of such networks have been reported in detail in (Haykin, 1999) (Pavlidis et al., 2005) (Bohte et al., 2000). Recently, a strategy proposed by Maass (Maass et al., 2002) and Jaeger (Jaeger, 2001) offers to overcome the burden of recurrent neural networks training. In this paradigm, instead of training the whole recurrent network only the output layer (known as readout neuron) is trained. This chapter investigates the potential of recurrent spiking neurons as the basic building blocks for the liquid or so called reservoir. These recurrent neural networks are termed as microcircuits which are viewed as basic computational units in cortical computation (Maass et al., 2002). These microcircuits are connected as columns which are linked with other neighboring columns in cortical areas. These columns read out information from each other and serve both as reservoir and readout. The reservoir is modeled as a dynamical system perturbed by the input stream where only readouts are trained to extract information from the reservoir. The basic motivation behind investigating recurrent neurons is their potential to memorise relevant events over short periods of time (Maass et al., 2002). The use of feedback enables recurrent networks to acquire state representation which makes them suitable for temporal based applications such as speech recognition. It is challenging to solve such problems with recurrent networks due to the burden of training. The paradigm of reservoir computing also referred to as liquid computing relaxes the burden of training because only an output layer is trained instead of training the whole network. The work presented in this chapter analyses the theoretical framework of Reservoir Computing and demonstrates results in terms of classification accuracy through the application of speech recognition. The design space for this paradigm is split into three domains; front end, reservoir, and back end. This work contributes to the identification of suitable front and back end processing techniques along with stable reservoir dynamics, which provides a reliable framework for classification related problems. The work presented in this chapter suggests a simple and efficient biologically plausible approach based on a hybrid implementation of recurrent spiking neurons and classical feed

Deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have shown their great success on image classification. CNNs mainly consist of convolutional and pooling layers, both of which are performed on local image areas without considering the dependence among different image regions. However, such dependence is very important for generating explicit image representation. In contrast, recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are well known for their ability of encoding contextual information in sequential data, and they only require a limited number of network parameters. Thus, we proposed the hierarchical RNNs (HRNNs) to encode the contextual dependence in image representation. In HRNNs, each RNN layer focuses on modeling spatial dependence among image regions from the same scale but different locations. While the cross RNN scale connections target on modeling scale dependencies among regions from the same location but different scales. Specifically, we propose two RNN models: 1) hierarchical simple recurrent network (HSRN), which is fast and has low computational cost and 2) hierarchical long-short term memory recurrent network, which performs better than HSRN with the price of higher computational cost. In this paper, we integrate CNNs with HRNNs, and develop end-to-end convolutional hierarchical RNNs (C-HRNNs) for image classification. C-HRNNs not only utilize the discriminative representation power of CNNs, but also utilize the contextual dependence learning ability of our HRNNs. On four of the most challenging object/scene image classification benchmarks, our C-HRNNs achieve the state-of-the-art results on Places 205, SUN 397, and MIT indoor, and the competitive results on ILSVRC 2012.

Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) is a deep learning model that uses the concept of supervised learning. Deep learning belongs to the family of machine learning. It is also called hierarchical learning or deep structured learning. The classic machine learning algorithms are definite, while the deep learning algorithms follow a chain of command. Deep learning has the capability to deal with more complex neural networks and it mainly deals with sequential data. Recurrent networks can process examples one at a time, preserving an element, that reflects over a long period of time.

In the Smart city environment, sustainable sewage and wastewater management planning plays a crucial role in industry development. Wastewater management is a serious issue with inadequate treatment, which reduces the smart city efficiency. Therefore, this research work concentrates on creating the Strategic Planning Adaption framework (SP-AF) using the Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN). This framework intends to manage the sewage and wastewater in smart cities. The sewage-related information is continuously collected by a recurrent network that identifies and tracks the wastewater and sewage in the smart city. The SP-AF framework analyses sustainable planning and managing wastewater by understanding the waste origin. In addition, the framework has been generated by understanding the wastewater knowledge, and the required actions are carried out. Then the effectiveness of the wastewater management system efficiency is compared with the existing approaches.

Behavior stability of recurrent complex-valued neural networks having dynamic output signals is investigated. The Lyapunov exponent is measured for a single-layer recurrent network when the signal-amplitude gain of neurons is varied. Time-sequential output signals are also presented for elucidating what happens in the network. It is found in the experiment that the network has a wide range of stably dynamic behavior in the gain domain where a phase-directional motive force governs the dynamics. This phenomenon is in a contrast to the behavior of conventional recurrent networks having dynamic signals generated by the information geometry in real-number space. The result suggests that the recurrent complex-valued networks are more useful for a stably dynamic information processing such as oscillation, waveform synthesis and adaptive filtering than conventional networks.

Recently, some models of neural networks, recurrent neural networks, have been used in conjunction with their associated neural learning schemes to infer regular grammars from a set of sample strings. The representation of the inferred automata is hidden in the weights and connections of the net, this being a common feature in emergent subsymbolic representations. In order to relate the symbolic and connectionist approaches to the tasks of grammatical inference and recognition, we address and solve a basic problem, which is, how to build a neural net recognizer for a given regular language specified by a deterministic finite-state automaton. A second-order recurrent network model is employed, which allows to formulate the problem as one of solving a linear system of equations. These equations directly represent the automaton transitions in terms of static linear approximations of the network running equations, and can be viewed as constraints to be satisfied by the network weights. A description is given both for the weight computation step and the string recognition procedure.

Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), which are a powerful scheme for modeling temporal and sequential data need to capture long-term dependencies on datasets and represent them in hidden layers with a powerful model to capture more information from inputs. For modeling long-term dependencies in a dataset, the gating mechanism concept can help RNNs remember and forget previous information. Representing the hidden layers of an RNN with more expressive operations (i.e., tensor products) helps it learn a more complex relationship between the current input and the previous hidden layer information. These ideas can generally improve RNN performances. In this paper, we proposed a novel RNN architecture that combine the concepts of gating mechanism and the tensor product into a single model. By combining these two concepts into a single RNN, our proposed models learn long-term dependencies by modeling with gating units and obtain more expressive and direct interaction between input and hidden layers using a tensor product on 3-dimensional array (tensor) weight parameters. We use Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) RNN and Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) RNN and combine them with a tensor product inside their formulations. Our proposed RNNs, which are called a Long-Short Term Memory Recurrent Neural Tensor Network (LSTMRNTN) and Gated Recurrent Unit Recurrent Neural Tensor Network (GRURNTN), are made by combining the LSTM and GRU RNN models with the tensor product. We conducted experiments with our proposed models on word-level and character-level language modeling tasks and revealed that our proposed models significantly improved their performance compared to our baseline models.

Using a discrete random network model of the actin cytoskeleton, we studied the effect of stretching of a stiff-fiber on the elastic response of a fibrous network. In real networks, this component can either be a stress-fiber, bundle of fibers within the network, or a microtubule. We analyze the response of this network due to shear loads while the stiff component is under or free of tensile strains. It is observed that the initial response of this network under shear loading is highly dependent on the amount of tensile strain in the stiff-fiber. In addition, the response depends on the amount and the direction of the shear loading, which is either a softening or a stiffening response depending on the loading direction. As a result, the apparent shear modulus of the network containing a preloaded stiff-fiber may become larger or smaller compared to a network with a relaxed stiff-fiber. This effect intensifies for higher levels of tensile strains in the stiff-fiber and for stiffer cross-links, and lessens for higher network densities. The results of the current research are useful in deciphering the response of soft fibrous materials such as the cell cytoskeleton or other networks comprising a random fibrous network containing a stiffer component than the main fibers of the network.