Reliability Journey: FTA Tool for Zero-Carbon Fueled Ships

The use of alternative fuels is a contemporary trend in science aimed at the protection of non-renewable resources, reducing the negative impact on people and reducing the negative impact on the natural environment. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is an alternative fuel within the meaning of the European Union Directive (2014/94/UE), as it is an alternative for energy sources derived from crude oil. The use of LPG fuel in low-power internal combustion engines is one of the currently developed scientific research directions. It results from the possibility of limiting air pollutant emissions compared to the commonly used gasoline and the lower cost of this fuel in many countries. By “gasoline 95” the Authors mean non-lead petrol as a flammable liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion engines, whereas 95 is an octane rating (octane number). This article presents the results of research on fuel consumption, toxic exhaust gas emission, and operating costs of a woodchipper used for shredding branches with a diameter of up to 100 mm in real working conditions. The woodchipper, powered by a 9.5 kW internal combustion engine, fueled by gasoline and LPG was tested. Liberal regulations of the European Union (Regulation 2016/1628/EU) on the emission of harmful exhaust compounds from small spark-ignition engines (up to 19 kW) and non-road applications contribute to the low technical advancement level of these engines. The authors researched a relatively simple and cheap LPG fueling system, as in their opinion, such a system has the best chance of being implemented for use. In the study, the branches of cherry plum were shredded (Prunus cerasiferaEhrh. Beitr. Naturk. 4:17. 1789 (Gartenkalender4:189-204. 1784)). Their diameter was ca. 80 mm, length 3 m, and moisture content ca. 25%. The system was tested during the shredding of the branches in real working conditions (the frequency of supplying the branches about 4 min−1 and the mass productivity of about 0.73 t/h). Based on the recorded results, it was found that the LPG fueled engine was characterized by higher carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by 22% and 27%, respectively. A positive effect of using LPG was the reduction of fuel consumption by 28% and carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrocarbons (HC) emissions by 37% and 83%, respectively. The results of the research show that the use of alternative fuels can bring benefits in terms of CO2 and HC emissions, but at the same time be characterized by an increase in CO and NOx emissions. Further research should be conducted on innovative alternative fuel supply systems, such as in the automotive industry. At the same time, legislators should limit the use of low-quality fuel supply systems with the limits of pollutant emissions in exhaust gases, contributing to the development and economic competitiveness of new fuel injection systems.

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Energy supply and environmental concerns have led to interest in alternative transportation fuels and power-trains. Already, there are significant changes in mainstream gasoline and Diesel formulation to accommodate tighter emissions standards. Some alternative fuels are being promoted as “cleaner” replacements for gasoline and Diesel fuel. There are many research papers which present data on these different alternative fuels, yet it is difficult to compare the fuels with any confidence. The majority of published studies do not use consistent methodology and make many assumptions (which may or may not be reported). Based on an extensive literature review, this study presents emissions results drawn from a smaller number of papers which provide alternative fuel and conventional emissions data in a comparable manner. Both light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles are considered. Reformulated gasoline, compressed natural gas, liquified petroleum gas, methanol-85 and methanol-100 are compared to conventional gasoline and Diesel fuels. The scope of the study includes emissions comparisons on the basis of standard emissions test cycles, low ambient temperature effects, mileage degradation as well as vehicle technology. Additionally, some of the parameters producing variances in emissions values from paper to paper are discussed.</div>

The lack of access to electricity and clean cooking fuels is commonly referred to as energy poverty. In 2014, approximately 819 million people in India relied on solid fuels (including wood, crop residue, dung and coal) for cooking, the use of which is claimed to contribute to premature death caused by indoor air pollution, deforestation and gender inequality. In the interest of improved health and wellbeing, the Indian Government is, therefore, promoting a transition to the use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) as a cleaner cooking fuel. Dimethyl ether (DME) is a LPG compatible synthetic fuel, and the primary purpose of this thesis is to understand the use of domestically produced DME to offset a growing Indian LPG import requirement. The thesis starts by exploring the links between alternative liquid fuels production and use, human wellbeing, energy poverty reduction and sustainable development (Objective 1). The analysis finds that the proportional share of income used to purchase fuel is larger in developing countries when compared with richer, more developed countries, and that extended periods of high oil prices may exacerbate poverty in developing countries which are dependent on oil imports. In addition to reducing this vulnerability, there is a strong (potential) synergy between the production and use of alternative liquid fuels and several of the United Nations sustainable development goals. These include the provision of affordable and clean energy, promoting economic growth, climate action, reducing inequality and improving health and wellbeing. Affordability is a key driver in the adoption (and continued use) of cleaner cooking fuels globally. Therefore, to be considered viable, the cost of domestically produced DME would have to be equal or lower than the cost of imported LPG. In this context, the remainder of the thesis is devoted to the techno-economic evaluation of producing DME from three different feedstocks, each offering a different greenhouse gas emissions intensity. The first evaluation (Objective 2) is based on the conversion of low-grade Indian coal in Jharkhand, where 18% of households used coal as a cooking fuel in 2011. Based on using a similar (energy equivalent) quantity of coal, it was found that producing DME (with associated excess electricity) would likely require oil prices greater than $73 per barrel to be cost competitive with imported LPG.Additionally, and due to higher overall process and cooking energy efficiency, this approach could result in 36% less coal being consumed when compared with direct use of the coal for cooking and as a means of producing an equivalent amount of electricity. India’s metropolitan cities generate large quantities of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), 90% of which is disposed of onto unsanitary landfills, creating major environmental and health concerns. This second evaluation (Objective 3) therefore considers the techno-economic merits of reducing some of these impacts by converting a portion of the MSW generated in Kolkata into DME. Results suggest that DME produced from a 50:50 blend of locally available coal and Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) could provide the cooking needs of approximately 15% of Kolkata’s population, and become cost competitive with imported LPG at an oil price of $130 per barrel. At this blend ratio, the quantity of the fossil fuel derived greenhouse gas emitted through DME production will be more than offset by avoided landfill methane emissions. The third study (Objective 4) investigates the production of DME by combining CO2 released in India’s ethanol plants, with hydrogen gained by water electrolysis using renewable electricity. More than 85% of India’s ethanol is produced in five states, four of which are richly endowed with a renewable electricity generation potential, but the cost of DME produced in this manner is several orders of magnitude higher than the prior two options considered. The production and use of this DME is, however, carbon neutral, and could become viable in the EIA’s “high oil price” scenario if future (US DOE) electrolysis performance targets are achieved, and at electricity costs below $45 per MWh. Although not commercially applied in India currently, the use of fluidised bed gasification technology is likely suited to the conversion of multiple Indian feedstocks into DME, and this approach could facilitate a transition to a lower carbon future. Gasification based DME production costs are very scale sensitive however and, used as an LPG blend stock, the size of plants dedicated to DME production alone are likely be market constrained. The use of neat DME for cooking, or as a diesel substitute, will provide access to a larger market, but require dedicated end-use devices, not yet commercially available. In this respect, the co-production of methanol and DME in larger scale facilities may be beneficial. This approach will require a wider use of methanol (or derivatives) and an assessment of the opportunity associated with establishing a local Indian market, based on the experience in China, is recommended as a next step.

The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction potentials of various near- and long-term transportation technologies were estimated. The estimated per-travel-distance GHG emissions results indicate that alternative transportation fuels and advanced vehicle technologies can help to significantly reduce transportation-related GHG emissions. Of the near-term technologies evaluated, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, compression-ignition, direct-injection vehicles, and E85 (85 percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline) flexible-fuel vehicles can reduce fuelcycle GHG emissions by more than 25 percent on a fuel-cycle basis. Electric vehicles powered by electricity generated primarily from nuclear and renewable sources can reduce GHG emissions by 80 percent. Other alternative fuels (such as compressed natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas) offer limited, but positive, GHG emissions reduction benefits. Among the long-term technologies evaluated, conventional sparkignition and compression-ignition engines powered by alternative fuels and gasoline- and diesel-powered advanced vehicles can reduce GHG emissions by 10 to 30 percent. Dedicated ethanol vehicles, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel-cell vehicles can reduce GHG emissions by more than 40 percent. Spark-ignition engines and fuel-cell vehicles powered by cellulosic ethanol and solar hydrogen (for fuel-cell vehicles only) can reduce GHG emissions by over 80 percent. In conclusion, both near- and long-term alternative fuels and advanced transportation technologies can play a role in reducing GHG emissions from the transportation sector.

The maritime industry remains a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this article, a systematic study has been performed on the alternative fuel emissions of large cargo ships under different route scenarios and propulsion systems. For this purpose, a set of key performance indicators (KPIs) are evaluated, including total equivalent CO2 emissions (CO2eq), CO2eq emissions per unit of transport mass and CO2eq emissions per unit of transport mass per distance. The emissions analysis demonstrates that Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) paired with Marine Gas Oil (MGO) emerges as the most viable short-term solution in comparison with the conventional fuel oil propulsion. Synthetic methanol (eMeOH) paired with synthetic diesel (eDiesel) is identified as the most promising long-term fuel combination. When comparing the European Union (EU) emission calculation system (FuelEU) with the International Maritime Organization (IMO) emission metrics, a discrepancy in emissions reduction outcomes has been observed. The IMO approach appears to favor methanol (MeOH) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) over conventional fuel oil. This is attributed to the fact that the IMO metrics do not consider unburned methane emissions (methane slip) and emissions in the production of fuels (Well-to-Tank).

Climate change and global warming are among the most important problems that today's world is struggling with. Greenhouse gas emissions released into the atmosphere make these problems even more intractable. The leading organization of the maritime industry, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), is taking increasingly restrictive and stricter rules and regulations on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, as a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions released into the atmosphere originate from commercial ships. Therefore, researchers focused on alternative marine fuels. Although there are many types of alternative marine fuels, biofuels are the most promising fuel for a smooth transition to zero-carbon alternative fuels. This is because biofuels can be burned in existing diesel-powered ships without any modifications or with minor modifications. Existing rules that seek to control emissions mainly monitor emissions from combustion of the fuel at the end user but are likely to take into account the entire lifecycle emissions of the fuel in the coming years. For this reason, in this paper, information about the stages and processes of lifecycle assessment is given. Then, the lifecycle emissions of fossil fuels, which are widely used today, and biofuels, which have an important position both in the decarbonization of maritime transportation and in the transition to zero-carbon alternative fuels, are examined. The aim of this study is to emphasize the importance of the lifecycle assessment model in the steps to be taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to overcome the problems on a global scale and then to compare fossil fuels and biofuels for the maritime industry within the scope of lifecycle emissions.

Alternative sources of energy as marine fuels; the effect on the environment and the financial perspectives for a more sustainable future in the shipping industry

Decarbonization strategies such as renewable energy, alternative fuels, and modifications on ships play an essential role in reducing global warming, but fossil fuel consumption is inevitable for meeting the sufficient energy demand. On the other hand, CO2 is one of the reasons for global warming, which can be mitigated by using a carbon capture system. Up to 90% CO2 reduction can be achieved by using a carbon capture unit on a ship. Carbon capture technologies are used in power plants, cement, and the steel industry. Also, after the introduction of stricter rules and the announcement of the decarbonization target by the International Maritime Organization, some studies are started to be made on using carbon capture in maritime transportation. This chapter reviews the carbon capture technologies such as absorption, adsorption, membrane, chemical looping, cryogenic and biological, also oxy-fuel combustion, pre-combustion, and post-combustion methods. In addition, means of storage, transportation, and utilization of captured CO2 are explained. Finally, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threat analyses are done to investigate the benefits and drawbacks of carbon capture systems on vessels. Although high energy demand, storage, and transportation of the captured CO2 are the limiting factors of adopting a carbon capture system on a ship, its high CO2 capture rate makes carbon capture technologies a promising option to meet the recent and upcoming regulations in maritime transportation.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has formulated numerous maritime-related conventions. The promotion of mandatory audits is required to ensure that the implementation of maritime management systems in various countries complies with the IMO Instruments Implementation Code (III Code) and that both member states and non-member states implement these conventions. This is not only an obligation but also a responsibility for all countries to promote the development of the maritime industry. This study investigates how Taiwan, one of the non-member state of the IMO, implements the audit process and develops future implementation strategies for various maritime conventions. This issue is of great significance to Taiwan as an important hub in the international maritime industry. The results of the study reveal that the proactive efforts of government authorities and officials and active participation in audits are considered the most crucial driving factors by most experts. However, more attention should be given to the challenging issues associated with international participation, which currently represent external threats and internal weaknesses. Furthermore, the continuous and proactive participation in audits of relevant IMO regulations is a key strategy for non-member states to maintain long-term strength in the maritime industry. Other non-member states can also refer to Taiwan's experience, strive to keep up with international standards, and seek to join the IMO to contribute to global maritime efforts. In addition, Taiwan’s government should make better use of and continue to support Taiwan’s maritime industry and strong private sector. Moreover, cooperation with international allies is a critical strategy for completing audits and sustaining the development of Taiwan’s maritime industry.

In this report, estimates are provided of the potential, by 2010, to displace conventional light-duty vehicle motor fuels with alternative fuels--compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), methanol from natural gas, ethanol from grain and from cellulosic feedstocks, and electricity--and with replacement fuels such as oxygenates added to gasoline. The 2010 estimates include the motor fuel displacement resulting both from government programs (including the Clean Air Act and EPACT) and from potential market forces. This report also provides an estimate of motor fuel displacement by replacement and alterative fuels in the year 2000. However, in contrast to the 2010 estimates, the year 2000 estimate is restricted to an accounting of the effects of existing programs and regulations. 27 figs., 108 tabs.

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The phenomenon of global warming, caused by the increased emissions of CO<sub>2</sub> and other greenhouse gases (CH<sub>4</sub> and N<sub>2</sub>O), has received considerable attention from policy makers and environmental groups. The current focus is on the development of global warming strategies based on choice of various transportation fuels for motor vehicles. This paper examines this issue by assessing the global warming impact of gasoline and other alternative fuels such as compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), methanol, and ethanol. The analysis accounts for all emission sources and greenhouse gases that are associated with the entire fuel cycle under a variety of process and engine technology scenarios. Results show that CNG and LPG are comparable to gasoline in total greenhouse gas emissions, while methanol and ethanol generally yield more greenhouse gases than gasoline. The exact differences depend on the assumed process efficiencies, vehicle fuel economy and emissions, and the relative warming affects of CH<sub>4</sub> and N<sub>2</sub>O to CO<sub>2</sub>. In view of these uncertainties and the fact that transportation fuels are not major contributors to global warming, switching from gasoline to either natural gas or alcohol-based fuels will have little impact on reducing total greenhouse gas emissions.</div>

To significantly reduce sulfur oxides emissions from fossil fuel-powered ships, reduce air pollution in ports and slow ocean acidification, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has imposed the new 0.50%m/m limit (reduced from 3.50%m/m in the past) on sulphur in ships’ fuel oil. This has given rise to a host of issues regarding fuel replenishment operations, safe operation management, maritime regulation, and coordinated governance of air and climate. In response to ocean acidification and climate change, regulations on the use of low-sulfur oil or alternative fuels by ships greatly reduce sulfur oxide emissions, but have no significant impact on reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, the refining process for low-sulfur fuels and the use of the gas cleaning system on ships both increase energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. To ensure the decarbonization process of shipping industry, there is an urgent need for a conceptual change in global ocean governance so as to promote the coordinated governance of air pollution and climate change. China’s conception of “a maritime community with a shared future” provides a new model for global ocean governance. The Chinese government has formulated regulations at different levels to promote the coordinated management of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions. Regarding supervision of sulfur oxide emissions from ships, this study proposes to build a multi-department collaborative supervision mechanism from marine fuel life cycle to enhance sulfur oxide monitoring and risk control capabilities. Specific measures of the proposed supervision mechanism include: the joint supervision of compliant fuel supply, the compliant fuel information disclosure platform, a joint law enforcement mechanism for atmospheric pollution, the ability of intelligent ship exhaust monitoring, and the construction of port power infrastructure.

Various endeavors are undertaken by the maritime industry, academia, and policy-makers to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These include the search for feasible technologies that could be used onboard merchant vessels and are propelled by international legal and social initiatives. To this end, this study aimed to critically analyze the research trends pertaining to the active methods of reducing the negative environmental impact of shipping. The research is focused on alternative fuels and renewable energy systems with respect to the related policy-making and existing legal framework. Therefore, a bibliometric approach was applied to a sample of 234 scientific papers indexed in the SCI-EXPANDED in Clarivate Analytics Web of Science Core Collection. The results indicate that the scientific efforts were made more on alternative fuels, while renewable energy sources only recently became a popular research subject. Moreover, the environmental benefits of prospective technologies are more investigated than their financial aspects. The research effort on alternative maritime fuels was made in parallel with the legal one, both aiming to combat global climate change and magnifying each other.

Maritime decarbonization is considered one of the most current and important issues in the maritime industry. The studies on the subject constitute a strong infrastructure for the rules and regulations that the International Maritime Organization should put forward as a top authority. Among these studies, papers and reports examining the subject from a life cycle perspective are of particular importance. Examining the environmental impacts of alternative fuels used on ships with a holistic approach from the cradle-to-grave perspective is very important to determine which method is “really” environmentally friendly. Life cycle assessment not only allows methods to be compared but also explains which process needs to be environmentally corrected among all the processes of the method. Within the scope of this study, first, basic information on the impacts of shipping to the climate change and life cycle assessment was presented, and then, alternative fuels (e.g., ammonia, hydrogen, liquefied natural gas, methanol, etc.) are examined from a life cycle perspective. Thus, it is aimed to evaluate the applications of life cycle assessment in the maritime sector holistically.

The maritime sector, responsible for around 2.9% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is under increasing pressure to decarbonize towards the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) 2050 targets. A number of exisiting reviews have summarized different aspects such as policy frameworks, alternative fuels, and ship technologies, yet few have examined the integrative role of data in advancing maritime decarbonization across these domains. This review establishes a four-pillar framework to capture how data-driven approaches are reshaping maritime decarbonization. It begins by analyzing emerging digital governance policies on the basis of conventional maritime policies. Second, it synthesizes the development of emission datasets, highlighting the indirect databases with direct real-time measurements such as unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and portable emission measurement systems (PEMS) monitoring. Third, it reviews methodological advancements in emission modeling, from empirical, economic, and hybrid models to machine learning-based approaches. Finally, it evaluates how these data and modeling advancements support coordinated decarbonization strategies across vessels, fuels, and ports, illustrating the growing role of data-informed decision-making in guiding systemic emission reductions throughout the maritime supply chain. This review links regulatory, data, modeling, and implementation perspectives through a data-centric perspective. By mapping research progress and identifying knowledge gaps across these four pillars, the review offers a structured foundation to support the acceleration of maritime decarbonization efforts.