Research Progress on the Forensic Age Estimation in Living Individuals Using MRI.

ObjectivesForensic age estimation from orthopantomograms (OPGs) can be performed more quickly and accurately using convolutional neural networks (CNNs), making them an ideal extension to standard forensic age estimation methods. This study evaluates improvements in forensic age prediction for children, adolescents, and young adults by training a custom CNN from a previous study, using a larger, diverse dataset with a focus on dental growth features.Methods21,814 OPGs from 13,766 individuals aged 1 to under 25 years were utilized. The custom CNN underwent 1000 epochs of training and validation using 16,000 and 4000 OPGs, respectively. The best model was chosen by the least mean absolute error (MAE) and evaluated with an additional test dataset of 1814 independent OPGs. Furthermore, the CNN was applied to OPGs from 15 available forensic age estimations conducted by experts certified by the Study Group on Forensic Age Diagnostics (AGFAD), and the results were compared.ResultsA MAE of 0.93 ± 0.81 years and a mean-signed error (MSE) of −0.06 ± 1.23 years were achieved in the test dataset. 63% of predictions were accurate within 1 year, and 95% within 2.5 years. Results of the CNN were comparable to those obtained by experts, effectively highlighting discrepancies in the reported ages of individuals.ConclusionUsing a large and diverse dataset along with custom deep learning techniques, forensic age estimation can be significantly improved, often providing predictions accurate to within 1 year. This approach offers a reliable, robust, and objective complement to standard forensic age estimation methods.Key PointsQuestionThe potential of custom convolutional neural networks for forensic age estimation, along with a large, diverse dataset, warrants further investigation, offering valuable support to experts.FindingsFor 1814 test-orthopantomograms, 63% of predictions were accurate within 1 year and 95% within 2.5 years, similar to expert estimates in 15 forensic cases.Clinical relevanceMany individuals’ fates depend on accurate age estimation. Forensic age estimation can benefit from applying CNN-based methods to further enhance reliability and accuracy.

Teeth are known to be the most accurate age indicators of human body and are frequently applied in forensic age estimation. We aimed to validate data mining-based dental age estimation, by comparing the accuracy of the estimation and classification performance of 18-year thresholds with conventional methods and with data mining-based age estimation. A total of 2657 panoramic radiographs were collected from Koreans and Japanese populations aged 15 to 23 years. They were subdivided into a training and internal test set of 900 radiographs each from Koreans, and an external test set of 857 radiographs from Japanese. We compared the accuracy and classification performance of the test sets from conventional methods with those from the data mining models. The accuracy of the conventional method with the internal test set was slightly higher than that of the data mining models, with a slight difference (mean absolute error < 0.21 years, root mean square error < 0.24 years). The classification performance of the 18-year threshold was also similar between the conventional method and the data mining models. Thus, conventional methods can be replaced by data mining models in forensic age estimation using second and third molar maturity of Korean juveniles and young adults.

Forensic age estimation in living or dead individuals is an important and difficult task. Teeth are considered a reliable indicator of age and provide a number of parameters for age prediction. The aim of this study was to estimate the age in a sample of Egyptian population using the tooth coronal index (TCI) in the mandibular permanent 1st molars in dental panoramic radiographs. Digital panoramic radiographs from 170 participants of known age and sex were included. They were used to measure the crown height (CH) and the coronal pulp cavity height (CPCH) in millimeters. Then, TCI was calculated according to Ikeda et al., (1985). Non significant statistical difference was observed between females and males as regards the TCI. A significant negative linear correlation between chronological age and values of TCI was detected. The correlation coefficients were -0.988, -0.987 and -0.986 in all participants, female participants and male participants respectively. The values of TCI were then subjected to regression analysis to derive equations for age estimation. Regression equations showed coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.984, 0.986 and 0.982 in all participants, female participants and male participants respectively. It was concluded that calculation of the TCI from the mandibular permanent 1st molars is a good predictor of age among Egyptians. Regression equations based on TCI were established and they proved to be very useful for prediction of age with no need for sex specific equations. So, calculation of the TCI is recommended as an easy method for age estimation. Further studies on larger sample size and studies using teeth other than the mandibular permanent 1st molars are needed.

Background Forensic age estimation plays a crucial role in medico-legal investigations, immigration cases, and criminal proceedings. Skeletal maturity indicators such as iliac crest ossification have been widely studied to assess chronological age. While conventional radiography has been frequently used for age estimation, variability in ossification timelines across populations necessitates further validation. The iliac crest apophysis follows a predictable maturation pattern, making it a valuable marker for forensic age determination. This study evaluates the reliability of iliac crest ossification staging in forensic age estimation using pelvic X-rays. Objective To assess the ossification status of the iliac crest apophysis in individuals aged 10 to 29 years using Kreitner’s four-stage classification and determine its applicability in forensic age estimation. Methods A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted at Hayatabad Medical Complex, Peshawar, involving 549 individuals who underwent pelvic X-rays between January 2023 and August 2024. Participants included 277 females (50.5%) and 272 males (49.5%), aged 10–29 years. Digital pelvic radiographs were analyzed by an experienced radiologist blinded to patient age. Iliac crest ossification was classified into four stages: stage 1 (absence of ossification), stage 2 (ossification without apophyseal fusion), stage 3 (partial fusion), and stage 4 (complete fusion). Spearman’s correlation was used to assess the relationship between age and ossification stages, with P &lt; 0.05 considered statistically significant. Results Stage 2 ossification was first observed at 12 years in females and 13 years in males. Stage 3 was first detected at 15 years in females and 17 years in males. Stage 4 ossification was identified at a minimum age of 17 years in males on both sides of the pelvis, while in females, it appeared at 20 years on the right iliac crest. The maximum observed age for stage 2 was 24 years in females and 25 years in males, while stage 3 and 4 ossification extended up to 28 years. A significant correlation was observed between age and iliac crest ossification (P = 0.0001), with correlation coefficients of r = 0.719 (right) and r = 0.716 (left) in males and r = 0.724 (right) and r = 0.700 (left) in females. Conclusion Iliac crest ossification assessed via conventional radiography provides a reliable skeletal marker for forensic age estimation. When used alongside other skeletal maturity indicators, this method enhances the accuracy of age determination. Further research with larger and diverse populations is needed to standardize age estimation criteria for forensic and clinical applications.

Age estimation from sternebral fusion in an Indian population - A computed tomographic evaluation.

Age related changes in thyroid and cricoid cartilages: An autopsy based radiological analysis

Forensic age estimation from aspartic acid racemization (AAR): Scrutiny of multiple source samples

Background: Forensic age estimation and its medicolegal implications are gaining lot of importance mainly to determine the age of undocumented youths and to differentiate juvenile from adults. Radiographic evaluation of third molars in terms of its stages of development, its position and extent of mineralization provides an important tool for age estimation, especially in middle teens and early twenties. Hence, this study was designed to assess the reliability of lower third molar development as an indicator for chronological age estimation in young adults of South Indian Population. Material and methods: The study sample comprised of OPG’s (orthopantamographs) of 188 subjects from a restricted geographic area and known chronological age and gender. Radiographs were evaluated using Demerjian’s method to assess the various stages of mandibular right and left third molar development. Data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis. Regression analysis was performed to obtain formula for dental age calculation. Results: Study revealed strong correlation between Demirjians third molar developmental stages and chronological age. Our study also showed that accuracy of age estimation is enhanced when bilateral third molar is evaluated and used for age estimation. The probability of an individual being adult at developmental stage G is still remains uncertain, however at developmental stage H it is almost assured. Conclusion: Several research groups have evaluated the reliability of third molars in age estimation but consensus on the usefulness of these teeth in forensic view has not been reached. The present study has discussed the utility of 3rd molar calcification stage in differentiating between juvenile and adolescent. Demirjian’s stage H can be used as cut off point for determining the majority/minority status of the individual.

Forensic age estimation in living individuals is particularly challenging near legally relevant age thresholds after dental maturation is complete. This study aimed to evaluate the applicability of periodontal ligament (PDL) visibility staging in third molars as a post-maturation marker for threshold-based forensic age estimation, with specific focus on the 21-year age cut-off, in a Turkish population. A retrospective analysis was conducted on 1,049 digital orthopantomograms (OPGs) of individuals aged 15–25 years. PDL visibility in maxillary and mandibular third molars was assessed according to the Olze et al. staging system. Associations between PDL stages, chronological age, sex, and tooth position were analyzed. Diagnostic performance for identifying individuals aged ≥ 21 years was evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. Advanced PDL visibility stages were significantly associated with increasing age. Mandibular third molars provided the most informative staging patterns. ROC analysis demonstrated good discriminative accuracy for the 21-year threshold, with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.79, indicating balanced sensitivity and specificity for threshold-based classification. Substantial intra- and inter-observer agreement confirmed methodological reliability. PDL visibility staging in third molars represents a reliable and reproducible complementary tool for forensic age estimation around the 21-year threshold in a Turkish population. Rather than exact age prediction, this method supports probabilistic decision-making in legally relevant age assessment and may contribute to a multimodal forensic age estimation framework.

Above or below 14years? An orthopantomographic study based on chronological course of eruption of mandibular premolars and second molars in a sample of south Indian children.

As a result of the global increase in migration movements in recent years, there is a growing demand for age estimates of live persons. The persons under examination are mostly foreigners without valid identification documents whose genuine age needs to be clarified for legal purposes. In many countries, the age thresholds relevant for criminal, civil, and asylum proceedings lie between 14 and 22 years of age. In line with recommendations issued by the Study Group on Forensic Age Diagnostics, for determining the age of live subjects a forensic age estimate should combine the results of a physical examination, an X-ray of the hand, and a dental examination which records dentition status and evaluates an orthopantomogram. To assess the age of persons who are assumed to be at least 18 years old, an additional roentgenographic or CT examination of the clavicles is recommended. If there is no legal justification for X-ray examinations, the range of possible methods is limited to a physical and a dental examination. The present paper addresses the influence of ethnicity on the examined developmental systems. In so doing, the authors conclude that forensic age estimates should pay due heed to the proband’s socio-economic status and ethnic origin. The effective doses from X-ray-examinations for forensic age estimations are given. There is no fear that the amount of radiation the examined individuals are exposed to during these X-ray examinations will have a detrimental effect on the person's health. At the end, research desiderata will be mentioned.

Background Forensic age estimation is not difficult when the body is found in good condition, but in cases of severe decomposition or damage, such as burnt or separated body parts, then the analysis can only be done with bones and teeth. There has been abundant research and development in the field of related biochemistry over the years. Various molecular changes occur in hard tissues and long-lived proteins, such as those in bones and teeth during the physiological process of aging. Aspartic acid racemization and DNA methylation are still the most frequently used age estimation methods because of their advantages in accuracy. Method This study aimed to compare the accuracy of DNA methylation and aspartic acid racemization methods for age estimation. Journal articles were searched in the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, and Semantic Scholar of 2017-2022 according to PRISMA guidelines. Result Twelve journal articles were eligible for review. The DNA methylation method is quite simple to use because of commercially available methylation kits. Furthermore, the results can be obtained relatively quickly without requiring many samples, and the method is less sensitive to thermal and other damage than the aspartic acid racemization method. Conclusion The aspartic acid racemization method for age estimation has high accuracy, especially in determining age at death. However, temperature and the condition of the teeth affect the racemization of aspartic acid. Given that DNA methylation is generally stable in a wide range of temperatures, it provides a better approach to determining the chronological age even from charred remains.

Dental age assessment of young Iranian adults using third molars: A multivariate regression study

Age estimation based on the change in the size of the pulp due to secondary dentin deposition can be conducted non-invasively using radiographic photographs. Among these methods, age estimation using the pulp/tooth area ratio is highly accurate. The present study was conducted to apply this method using the panoramic radiographs of a Korean sample population and to evaluate its applicability in the Korean population. The study was conducted using panoramic radiographic images of 349 Koreans aged 20-79 years. The pulp/ tooth area ratio was calculated by measuring the area of the pulp and tooth. Teeth with a single canal, such as maxillary central incisor, lateral incisor, canine, and mandibular canine, were selected. Correlations between this ratio and age were calculated and regression formulas were derived. Age and pulp/tooth area ratio showed relatively low correlations compared with other studies. In particular, men showed lower correlations than women, and upper teeth showed a higher correlation than lower teeth. The regression formulas derived in this study also showed higher errors than those reported in other studies. Age estimation using pulp/tooth area ratio in a Korean using digital panoramic radiographs showed larger errors when compared with previous studies. Morphological diversity of tooth and pulp, indistinct anatomical details in panoramic radiograph, reduction in crown size due to attrition, and ethnic differences are believed to have affected the results.

Background/Objectives: Age estimation is of fundamental importance in forensic investigations. When traditional methods based on gross bone morphology or morphometric analysis cannot be applied, forensic experts must rely on multidisciplinary approaches. Histomorphometry has consistently proven to be reliable in cases of highly fragmented or incomplete skeletal remains, particularly in older individuals. Building on the foundational study of Amprino and Bairati, this study evaluated the correlations between bone microstructural features in femoral cross-sections and the age and sex of individuals. Methods: The sample comprised 95 femoral mid-diaphyseal thin sections obtained from autopsy specimens housed at the Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Bari (Italy), representing both male and female individuals aged 18 to 92 years. The numbers and densities of primary, intact secondary, and fragmentary secondary osteons, together with osteon circularity and the mean osteonal area, were measured to investigate age-related variation. Statistical analyses included t-tests, Mann–Whitney tests, Spearman’s rank correlation, and General Linear Models (GLMs). Results: No significant differences in histomorphometric variables were observed between males and females. However, the number of intact secondary osteons and osteon population density increased with age, while the mean osteonal area and osteon circularity decreased with age. Although some variables displayed significant correlations with age, residual analysis indicated a lack of heterogeneity in variance, which limited the development of a robust predictive model. Conclusions: The findings highlight both the potential and the limitations of histomorphometry in forensic age estimation. While certain microstructural variables correlate with age, inter-individual variability reduces predictive accuracy. Further research is needed to refine models that account for biological and biomechanical variability, particularly in older adults.