Resource-Efficient Model for Deep Kernel Learning

Electricity load forecasting is a crucial undertaking within all the deregulated markets globally. Among the research challenges on a global scale, the investigation of deep transfer learning (DTL) in the field of electricity load forecasting represents a fundamental effort that can inform artificial intelligence applications in general. In this paper, a comprehensive study is reported regarding day-ahead electricity load forecasting. For this purpose, three sequence-to-sequence (Seq2seq) deep learning (DL) models are used, namely the multilayer perceptron (MLP), the convolutional neural network (CNN) and the ensemble learning model (ELM), which consists of the weighted combination of the outputs of MLP and CNN models. Also, the study focuses on the development of different forecasting strategies based on DTL, emphasizing the way the datasets are trained and fine-tuned for higher forecasting accuracy. In order to implement the forecasting strategies using deep learning models, load datasets from three Greek islands, Rhodes, Lesvos, and Chios, are used. The main purpose is to apply DTL for day-ahead predictions (1–24 h) for each month of the year for the Chios dataset after training and fine-tuning the models using the datasets of the three islands in various combinations. Four DTL strategies are illustrated. In the first strategy (DTL Case 1), each of the three DL models is trained using only the Lesvos dataset, while fine-tuning is performed on the dataset of Chios island, in order to create day-ahead predictions for the Chios load. In the second strategy (DTL Case 2), data from both Lesvos and Rhodes concurrently are used for the DL model training period, and fine-tuning is performed on the data from Chios. The third DTL strategy (DTL Case 3) involves the training of the DL models using the Lesvos dataset, and the testing period is performed directly on the Chios dataset without fine-tuning. The fourth strategy is a multi-task deep learning (MTDL) approach, which has been extensively studied in recent years. In MTDL, the three DL models are trained simultaneously on all three datasets and the final predictions are made on the unknown part of the dataset of Chios. The results obtained demonstrate that DTL can be applied with high efficiency for day-ahead load forecasting. Specifically, DTL Case 1 and 2 outperformed MTDL in terms of load prediction accuracy. Regarding the DL models, all three exhibit very high prediction accuracy, especially in the two cases with fine-tuning. The ELM excels compared to the single models. More specifically, for conducting day-ahead predictions, it is concluded that the MLP model presents the best monthly forecasts with MAPE values of 6.24% and 6.01% for the first two cases, the CNN model presents the best monthly forecasts with MAPE values of 5.57% and 5.60%, respectively, and the ELM model achieves the best monthly forecasts with MAPE values of 5.29% and 5.31%, respectively, indicating the very high accuracy it can achieve.

We aimed at comparing intratumoral and peritumoral deep learning, radiomics, and fusion models in predicting KRAS mutations in rectal cancer using endorectal ultrasound imaging. This study included 304 patients with rectal cancer from Fujian Medical University Union Hospital. The patients were randomly divided into a training group (213 patients) and a test group (91 patients) at a 7:3 ratio. Radiomics and deep learning models were established using primary tumor and peritumoral images. In the optimally performing regions-of-interest, two fusion strategies, a feature-based and a decision-based model, were employed to build the fusion models. The Shapley additive explanation (SHAP) method was used to evaluate the significance of features in the optimal radiomics, deep learning, and fusion models. The performance of each model was assessed using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) and decision curve analysis (DCA). In the test cohort, both the radiomics and deep learning models exhibited optimal performance with a 10-pixel patch extension, yielding AUC values of 0.824 and 0.856, respectively. The feature-based DLRexpand10_FB model attained the highest AUC (0.896) across all study sets. In addition, the DLRexpand10_FB model demonstrated excellent sensitivity, specificity, and DCA. SHAP analysis underscored the deep learning feature (DL_1) as the most significant factor in the hybrid model. The feature-based fusion model DLRexpand10_FB can be employed to predict KRAS gene mutations based on pretreatment endorectal ultrasound images of rectal cancer. The integration of peritumoral regions enhanced the predictive performance of both the radiomics and deep learning models.

PurposeTo conduct a head-to-head comparison between deep learning (DL) and radiomics models across institutions for predicting microvascular invasion (MVI) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and to investigate the model robustness and generalizability through rigorous internal and external validation.MethodsThis retrospective study included 2304 preoperative images of 576 HCC lesions from two centers, with MVI status determined by postoperative histopathology. We developed DL and radiomics models for predicting the presence of MVI using B-mode ultrasound, contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) at the arterial, portal, and delayed phases, and a combined modality (B + CEUS). For radiomics, we constructed models with enlarged vs. original regions of interest (ROIs). A cross-validation approach was performed by training models on one center’s dataset and validating the other, and vice versa. This allowed assessment of the validity of different ultrasound modalities and the cross-center robustness of the models. The optimal model combined with alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) was also validated. The head-to-head comparison was based on the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC).ResultsThirteen DL models and 25 radiomics models using different ultrasound modalities were constructed and compared. B + CEUS was the optimal modality for both DL and radiomics models. The DL model achieved AUCs of 0.802–0.818 internally and 0.667–0.688 externally across the two centers, whereas radiomics achieved AUCs of 0.749–0.869 internally and 0.646–0.697 externally. The radiomics models showed overall improvement with enlarged ROIs (P < 0.05 for both CEUS and B + CEUS modalities). The DL models showed good cross-institutional robustness (P > 0.05 for all modalities, 1.6–2.1% differences in AUC for the optimal modality), whereas the radiomics models had relatively limited robustness across the two centers (12% drop-off in AUC for the optimal modality). Adding AFP improved the DL models (P < 0.05 externally) and well maintained the robustness, but did not benefit the radiomics model (P > 0.05).ConclusionCross-institutional validation indicated that DL demonstrated better robustness than radiomics for preoperative MVI prediction in patients with HCC, representing a promising solution to non-standardized ultrasound examination procedures.

To develop and evaluate static ultrasound images of ovaries-based radiomics and deep learning models for predicting antral follicle count (AFC) and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). A retrospective analysis was performed on 395 infertility patients who completed AFC through transvaginal ultrasonography and AMH test in two branches of the hospital. The data set was divided into training cohort (n = 210, Branch A), internal test cohort (n = 91, Branch A), and external test cohort (n = 94, Branch B). The AFC results of static ultrasound images (AFCstatic) and dynamic scan (AFCdynamic) were analysed for correlation and consistency. The radiomics, deep learning and combined models (Rad-DL model) were developed to quantitatively predict AFC and AMH respectively, and the ordered 3-class classification (AFCdynamic≤5,6≤AFCdynamic≤19 and 20≤AFCdynamic) prediction was further carried out. There was a high degree of correlation and consistency between AFCstatic and AFCdynamic in both branches. In the quantitative prediction of AFCdynamic, the R2 of the radiomics, deep learning and Rad-DL models in the external test cohort were 0.572, 0.541, 0.583, respectively. In the quantitative prediction of AMH, the R2 of the radiomics, deep learning and Rad-DL models in the external test cohort were 0.420, 0.352, 0.509, respectively. For the ordered 3-class classification prediction, the radiomics, deep learning and Rad-DL models demonstrated a good discrimination performance with overall AUCs of 0.816 (95%CI, 0.747–0.887), 0.843 (95%CI, 0.772–0.901), and 0.881 (95%CI, 0.816–0.931) in the external test cohort, respectively. Radiomics and deep learning models developed by using static ultrasound images of ovaries may quantitatively predict AFCdynamic to a certain extent, and accurately screen infertility patients with different ovarian reserve levels. This study lays the foundation for further break through the rigid antral follicle count and explore an intelligent non-invasive ovarian reserve evaluation method.

Deep learning breast cancer risk models demonstrate improved accuracy compared with traditional risk models but have not been prospectively tested. We compared the accuracy of a deep learning risk score derived from the patient's prior mammogram to traditional risk scores to prospectively identify patients with cancer in a cohort due for screening. We collected data on 119 139 bilateral screening mammograms in 57 617 consecutive patients screened at 5 facilities between September 18, 2017, and February 1, 2021. Patient demographics were retrieved from electronic medical records, cancer outcomes determined through regional tumor registry linkage, and comparisons made across risk models using Wilcoxon and Pearson χ2 2-sided tests. Deep learning, Tyrer-Cuzick, and National Cancer Institute Breast Cancer Risk Assessment Tool (NCI BCRAT) risk models were compared with respect to performance metrics and area under the receiver operating characteristic curves. Cancers detected per thousand patients screened were higher in patients at increased risk by the deep learning model (8.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 7.9 to 9.4) compared with Tyrer-Cuzick (4.4, 95% CI = 3.9 to 4.9) and NCI BCRAT (3.8, 95% CI = 3.3 to 4.3) models (P &lt; .001). Area under the receiver operating characteristic curves of the deep learning model (0.68, 95% CI = 0.66 to 0.70) was higher compared with Tyrer-Cuzick (0.57, 95% CI = 0.54 to 0.60) and NCI BCRAT (0.57, 95% CI = 0.54 to 0.60) models. Simulated screening of the top 50th percentile risk by the deep learning model captured statistically significantly more patients with cancer compared with Tyrer-Cuzick and NCI BCRAT models (P &lt; .001). A deep learning model to assess breast cancer risk can support feasible and effective risk-based screening and is superior to traditional models to identify patients destined to develop cancer in large screening cohorts.

COVID-19 is highly infectious and causes acute respiratory disease. Machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) models are vital in detecting disease from computerized chest tomography (CT) scans. The DL models outperformed the ML models. For COVID-19 detection from CT scan images, DL models are used as end-to-end models. Thus, the performance of the model is evaluated for the quality of the extracted feature and classification accuracy. There are four contributions included in this work. First, this research is motivated by studying the quality of the extracted feature from the DL by feeding these extracted to an ML model. In other words, we proposed comparing the end-to-end DL model performance against the approach of using DL for feature extraction and ML for the classification of COVID-19 CT scan images. Second, we proposed studying the effect of fusing extracted features from image descriptors, e.g., Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT), with extracted features from DL models. Third, we proposed a new Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to be trained from scratch and then compared to the deep transfer learning on the same classification problem. Finally, we studied the performance gap between classic ML models against ensemble learning models. The proposed framework is evaluated using a CT dataset, where the obtained results are evaluated using five different metrics The obtained results revealed that using the proposed CNN model is better than using the well-known DL model for the purpose of feature extraction. Moreover, using a DL model for feature extraction and an ML model for the classification task achieved better results in comparison to using an end-to-end DL model for detecting COVID-19 CT scan images. Of note, the accuracy rate of the former method improved by using ensemble learning models instead of the classic ML models. The proposed method achieved the best accuracy rate of 99.39%.

A robust and lightweight deep attention multiple instance learning algorithm for predicting genetic alterations.

This paper takes the problems and ways of diversified curriculum construction of vocal music education in colleges and universities as the entry point and constructs a deep blended learning model of vocal music diversified curriculum based on the deep learning model. The deep evolutionary knowledge tracking model is constructed by combining the self-attention mechanism embedding model with vocal music knowledge evolution based on Transformer. To verify the effectiveness of the deep blended learning model constructed in this paper, model comparison experiments and empirical analysis were conducted. The results show that compared with the SAKT model, the DBL model in this paper has a 5.19% improvement in the average ROC-AUC value. The vocal posttest scores of the students in the experimental class were 5.09 points higher than those of the control class, with a two-tailed significance value of 0.027, which is less than 0.05 and a significant difference. This indicates that the deep learning model can effectively promote the innovative design of diversified curricula for vocal music education in colleges and universities and enhance students’ vocal music learning ability.

Moving target defenses (MTDs) are widely used as an active defense strategy for thwarting cyberattacks on cyber-physical systems by increasing diversity of software and network paths. Recently, machine Learning (ML) and deep Learning (DL) models have been demonstrated to defeat some of the cyber defenses by learning attack detection patterns and defense strategies. It raises concerns about the susceptibility of MTD to ML and DL methods. Here, in this article, we analyze the effectiveness of ML and DL models when it comes to deciphering MTD methods and ultimately evade MTD-based protections in real-time systems. Specifically, we consider a MTD algorithm that periodically randomizes address assignments within the MIL-STD-1553 protocol—a military standard serial data bus. Two ML and DL-based tasks are performed on MIL-STD-1553 protocol to measure the effectiveness of the learning models in deciphering the MTD algorithm: 1) determining whether there is an address assignments change i.e., whether the given system employs a MTD protocol and if it does 2) predicting the future address assignments. The supervised learning models (random forest and k-nearest neighbors) effectively detected the address assignment changes and classified whether the given system is equipped with a specified MTD protocol. On the other hand, the unsupervised learning model (K-means) was significantly less effective. The DL model (long short-term memory) was able to predict the future addresses with varied effectiveness based on MTD algorithm's settings.

Hybrid residual deep learning models with physical knowledge for improving plant transpiration estimation

Area under the curve may hide poor generalisation to external datasets

Evaluation of multispectral imaging for freeze damage assessment in strawberries using AI-based computer vision technology

The past few years have seen a surge of applying Deep Learning (DL) models for a wide array of tasks such as image classification, object detection, machine translation, etc. While DL models provide an opportunity to solve otherwise intractable tasks, their adoption relies on them being optimized to meet latency and resource requirements. Benchmarking is a key step in this process but has been hampered in part due to the lack of representative and up-to-date benchmarking suites. This is exacerbated by the fast-evolving pace of DL models. This paper proposes DLBricks, a composable benchmark generation design that reduces the effort of developing, maintaining, and running DL benchmarks on CPUs. DLBricks decomposes DL models into a set of unique runnable networks and constructs the original model's performance using the performance of the generated benchmarks. DLBricks leverages two key observations: DL layers are the performance building blocks of DL models and layers are extensively repeated within and across DL models. Since benchmarks are generated automatically and the benchmarking time is minimized, DLBricks can keep up-to-date with the latest proposed models, relieving the pressure of selecting representative DL models. Moreover, DLBricks allows users to represent proprietary models within benchmark suites. We evaluate DLBricks using $50$ MXNet models spanning $5$ DL tasks on $4$ representative CPU systems. We show that DLBricks provides an accurate performance estimate for the DL models and reduces the benchmarking time across systems (e.g. within $95\%$ accuracy and up to $4.4\times$ benchmarking time speedup on Amazon EC2 c5.xlarge).

Objective.Functional brain network (FBN) methods are commonly integrated with deep learning (DL) models for EEG analysis. Typically, an FBN is constructed to extract features from EEG data, which are then fed into a DL model for further analysis. Beyond this two-step approach, there is potential to embed FBN construction directly within DL models as a feature extraction module, enabling the models to learn EEG representations end-to-end while incorporating insights from FBNs. However, a critical prerequisite is whether DL models can effectively learn the FBN construction process.Approach.To address this, we propose using DL models to learn FBN matrices derived from EEG data. The ability of DL models to accurately reproduce these matrices would validate their capacity to learn the FBN construction process. This approach is tested on two publicly available EEG datasets, utilizing seven DL models to learn four representative FBN matrices. Model performance is assessed through mean squared error (MSE), Pearson correlation coefficient (Corr), and concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) between predicted and actual matrices.Main results.The results show that DL models achieve low MSE and relatively high Corr and CCC values when learning the Coherence network. Visualizations of predicted and error matrices reveal that while DL models capture the general structure of all four FBNs, certain regions remain difficult to model accurately. Additionally, a pairedt-test comparing global efficiency and nodal degree between predicted and actual networks indicates that most predicted networks significantly differ from the actual networks (p<0.05).Significance.These findings suggest that while DL models can learn the connectivity relationships of certain FBNs, they struggle to capture the intrinsic topological structures. This highlights the irreplaceability of traditional FBN methods in EEG analysis and underscores the need for hybrid strategies that combine FBN methods with DL models for a more comprehensive analysis.

This study aims to develop and validate an interpretable deep learning (DL) model and a nomogram based on endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) images for the prediction of pathological grading in pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs). This multicenter retrospective study included 108 patients with PNETs, who were divided into train (n = 81, internal center) and test cohorts (n = 27, external centers). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression were used for screening demographic characteristics and EUS semantic features. Deep transfer learning was employed using a pre-trained ResNet18 model to extract features from EUS images. Feature selection was conducted using the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO), and various machine learning algorithms were utilized to construct DL models. The optimal model was then integrated with clinical features to develop a nomogram. The performance of the model was assessed using the area under the curve (AUC), calibration curves, decision curve analysis (DCA), and clinical impact curves (CIC). The nomogram, which integrates the optimal DL model (Naive Bayes) with clinical features, achieved AUC values of 0.928 (95% CI 0.849–0.981) in the train cohort and 0.882 (95% CI 0.778–0.954) in the test cohort. Calibration curves revealed minimal discrepancies between predicted and actual probabilities, with mean absolute errors of 4.5% and 6.6% in the train and test cohorts, respectively. DCA and CIC demonstrated substantial net benefit and clinical utility. The SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) method provided insights into the contribution of each DL feature to the model’s predictions. This study developed and validated a novel interpretable DL model and nomogram using EUS images and machine learning, which holds promise for enhancing the clinical application of EUS in identifying PNETs’ pathological grading.