Rigid polyurethane foams – based composites for sustainable logistics transportation: Synthesis, structure, multifunctional applications, and artificial intelligence integration

The utilization of polyols derived from renewable sources presents an opportunity to enhance the sustainability of rigid polyurethane (PUR) foams, thereby contributing to the advancement of a circular bioeconomy. This study explores the development of PUR rigid foams exclusively using polyols sourced from second-generation renewable biomass feedstocks, specifically depolymerized birch bark suberin (suberinic acids) and tall oil fatty acids. The polyols achieved a total renewable material content as high as 74%, with a suberinic acid content of 37%. Response surface modeling was employed to determine the optimal bio-polyol, blowing agents, and catalyst content, hence, optimizing the bio-based foam formulations. In addition, response surface modeling was applied to rigid PUR foam formulations based on commercially available petroleum-based polyols for comparison. The results, including apparent density (~40-44 kg/m3), closed cell content (~95%), compression strength (>0.2 MPa, parallel to the foaming direction), and thermal conductivity (~0.019 W/(m·K)), demonstrated that the suberinic acids-based rigid PUR foam exhibited competitive qualities in comparison to petroleum-based polyols. Remarkably, the bio-based rigid PUR foams comprised up to 29% renewable materials. These findings highlight the potential of suberinic acid-tall oil polyols as effective candidates for developing rigid PUR foams, offering promising solutions for sustainable insulation applications.

Synthesis of phosphorus/nitrogen containing intumescent flame retardants from p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillin and syringaldehyde for rigid polyurethane foams

Highly flame‐retardant rigid polyurethane (RPU) foams were prepared by vacuum impregnation or pressure impregnation of sodium polyborate (SPB) solution. The RPU foams (10 mm thickness, 134–690% SPB) endured the flame of a butane gas burner for 167–1144 s, and the backside temperatures remained below 45°C until penetration occurred. The heat releases from the RPU foams with 150 and 400% SPB in air in the cone calorimeter tests were 8.8 and 4.1 MJ/m2, respectively. The analyses with thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry, and scanning electron microscopy indicated the flame‐retardant mechanism, in which the SPB foam and the formed char layer together insulated the inside from oxygen gas and heat. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011

In the framework of the present activity, work is carried out on the development of rigid polyurethane (PUR) foam material for external cryogenic insulation of a liquefied hydrogen (LH2) tank for the next generation launcher with a cryogenic upper stage. The main advantage of PUR foams in comparison with other thermal insulation materials is possibility to cover this material on the complicated shape metal surfaces by spraying method, which leads to significant cost savings. The spraying of PUR foams on metal constructions is chemical-technological process. As a result of work performed within the confidential European Space Agency contract, PUR foam material has been developed for the use as external insulation material for fuel tank structures. Raw ingredients from suppliers within EU have been used exclusively. The material has been tested for its performance in normal (room) and relevant (cryogenic conditions) environment and found to be mechanically durable and thermally excellent and therefore appropriate for use in space application. Accelerated ageing test indicate the material to be long-lasting. Safety coefficient, which characterizes the capability of insulation to withstand cryo-shocks, for optimal compositions reaches 4.7.

Effects of dental implant diameter and tapered body design on stress distribution in rigid polyurethane foam during insertion

Thermal decomposition and flammability of rigid PU foams containing some DOPO derivatives and other phosphorus compounds

Rigid polyurethane foams containing lignin oxyalkylated with ethylene carbonate and polyethylene glycol

An understanding of the long‐term thermal conductivity of rigid polyurethane (RPU) foams presents great interest in the building field considering the conservation of energy efficiency. In this study, the effect of different types of particles (talc, diatomaceous earth and non‐porous silica) on the thermal conductivity of RPU foams blown with cyclopentane and water as blowing agents was investigated during 3 years of aging. The characterization of the cellular structure shows how the addition of particles causes a cell size reduction of the foams, and consequently an enhancement of the thermal properties just after production. However, this initial reduction is not maintained, because each foam shows a different thermal conductivity evolution with time. We have found, for the first time, a relationship between the slope of the thermal conductivity versus time at the first measurements and the internal temperature reached during the foaming process. The evolution of the RPU foams in which higher internal temperatures were reached is more pronounced than in those RPU foams where lower foaming temperatures were observed. This effect is related to the kinetics of the diffusion of the gas occluded inside the cells and imposes a new criterion for the selection of particles to reduce the thermal conductivity of RPU foams; these additives should ideally decrease the temperature reached during the foaming process. Moreover, the effect of aging on the thermal conductivity is explained by using theoretical models. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry

This paper presents a new methodology based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) in order to separate and quantify the gases presented inside the cells of rigid polyurethane (RPU) foams. To demonstrate this novel methodology, the gas composition along more than three years of aging is herein determined for two samples: a reference foam and foam with 1.5 wt% of talc. The GCMS method was applied, on one hand, for the accurate determination of C5H10 and CO2 cell gases used as blowing agents and, on the other hand, for N2 and O2 air gases that diffuse rapidly from the surrounding environment into foam cells. GCMS results showed that CO2 leaves foam after 2.5 month (from 21% to 0.03% for reference foam and from 17% to 0.03% for foam with 1.5% talc). C5H10 deviates during 3.5 months (from 28% up to 39% for reference foam and from 29% up to 36% for foam with talc), then it starts to leave the foam and after 3.5 year its content is 13% for reference and 10% for foam with talc. Air diffuses inside the cells faster for one year (from 51% up to 79% for reference and from 54% up to 81% for foam with talc) and then more slowly for 3.5 years (reaching 86% for reference and 90% for foam with talc). Thus, the fast and simple presented methodology provides valuable information to understand the long-term thermal conductivity of the RPU foams.

Global efforts to find renewable feedstocks for the chemical industry are aimed at replacing fossil reserves and a reduction in global warming by employing environmently friendly technologies (green chemistry approaches) for specialty chemical manufacturing. Cardanol, obtained as a byproduct of the cashew processing industry, is an important renewable resource and a unique phenolic compound carrying a 15-carbon side chain in meta position with varying degrees of unsaturation. In this work, the synthesis of new biobased polyols for rigid polyurethane (PU) foams through oxidation of side chain unsaturation is reported using the environmentally benign reagent hydrogen peroxide. Polyols with hydroxyl values in the range of 350–400 mg KOH/g were prepared through epoxidation followed by hydrolysis and characterized for structure using IR,1H-NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectroscopic techniques. The foaming characteristics were studied, and the polyols were successfully used in making rigid polyurethane foams with good physical and mechanical properties. The foams were characterized for density, compressive strength, morphology, and viscoelastic properties. The properties are compared with that of foams prepared using standard petroleum-based polyols.

Rigid polyurethane (PU) foams were prepared by the following procedures. Sodium lignosulfonate (LS) was dissolved in diethylene glycol (DEG), triethylene glycol (TEG) or polyethylene glycol (average molecular weight, Mn200: PEG200). Rigid polyurethane foams were prepared by reacting the obtained solutions with polyphenyl polymethylene polydiisocyanate (MDI) in the presence of a silicone surfactant, di-n-butyltin dilaurate (DBTDL) and water. Thermal and mechanical properties of these polyurethanes (PU's) were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetry (TG) and mechanical tests. Glass transition temperatures (Tg's) of PU's increased with increasing LS content and decreased with increasing Mn of ethylene glycol. Thermal degradation took place in two stages and temperatures (Td's) decreased with increasing LS content. Compressive stress at 10% strain (σ10) and compressive yielding stress (σy) increased with increasing apparent density (ρ) of PU's.

The synthesis of rigid polyurethane (RPU) foams containing thermoregulatory microcapsules has been carried out under reduced pressure conditions with a new foaming formulation to reduce the final composite densities. These optimized RPU foams were able to overpass the drawbacks exhibited by the previous composites over the studied temperature range, working as insulating and thermal energy storage materials. The change in the formulation allowed to decrease the final foam density and enhance their mechanical strength. The effect of the operating pressure (atmospheric, 800 mbar, and 700 mbar) and microcapsules content (up to 30 wt%) on the physical, mechanical, and thermal PU foam properties was studied. The reduction of the pressure from atmospheric to 800 mbar did not have any effect on the cell size, strut thickness, and compression strength 10% of deformation, the Young modulus being even higher at 800 mbar. Nevertheless, a strong impact on the microstructure and mechanical properties was observed for the foam composites obtained at 700 mbar. A deleterious impact on the RPU foams thermal conductivity was observed when using low-pressure conditions. Thermal analyses showed that a composite able to work as heat accumulator and thermal insulation both at transient and at steady state was achieved.

Polymer-based insulation materials are widely used to enhance the energy efficiency of buildings; however, their growing application raises concerns related to resource use and end-of-life management. Rigid polyurethane (PUR) foams are key core materials in structural insulated panels due to their favorable thermal and mechanical performance, yet their life cycle environmental impacts-particularly at end-of-life-remain insufficiently quantified. In this study, a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) of PUR-based insulation used in structural insulated panel systems is conducted in accordance with ISO 14040/44 and EN 15804 standards. The assessment is performed using Sphera LCA software (version: GaBi 10.5) and the CML 2016 impact assessment method. Formulation-level variations in rigid PUR foams, including changes in methylene diphenyl diisocyanate content and pentane blowing agent ratio, are explicitly incorporated to evaluate their influence on key environmental impact categories. The results indicate that increasing pentane content leads to higher global warming potential, while this effect may be mitigated or intensified by concurrent changes in diisocyanate content and foam density in fully formulated systems. Three end-of-life scenarios-landfilling, incineration with energy recovery, and mechanical recycling-are analyzed. The findings provide material-level, decision-relevant insights that support environmentally informed formulation strategies and contribute to the development of more circular polymer-based insulation solutions for the built environment.

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education has the potential to revolutionize teaching and learning, particularly in the development of students’ critical thinking skills. This study explores science instructors' familiarity, perceptions, and experiences with using AI to enhance students' critical thinking skills, as well as the level of institutional support for AI integration in teaching. A quantitative survey was conducted among 20 science instructors from higher education institutions in Isabela, Philippines. The findings reveal that while instructors acknowledge AI's potential to improve educational outcomes, there is a significant gap in formal AI training and literacy among educators. Positive correlations were found between AI literacy, AI integration, and critical thinking development, suggesting that as AI literacy increases, AI integration and enhancement of critical thinking skills also increase. Regression analysis identified AI integration as a significant predictor of critical thinking development. Challenges remain in the effective implementation of AI, including concerns about overreliance on AI-generated responses and the need for clear assessment guidelines. Interestingly, years of teaching experience did not significantly influence participants’ AI literacy, perceptions, or integration. This study highlights the importance of developing comprehensive AI literacy programs for educators and integrating AI into curriculum structures to balance AI-enhanced learning with human-centered pedagogy. These findings emphasize the need for thoughtful implementation and ongoing research to effectively leverage AI in promoting critical thinking skills in science education.

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