Routing Algorithm for Connected Vehicles Based on Bus Route Information

The effect of process variation (PV) on delay is a major reason to deteriorate the performance in advanced technologies. The performance of different routing algorithms is determined with/without PV for various traffic patterns. The saturation throughput and average message delay are used as performance metrics to evaluate the throughput. PV decreases the saturation throughput and increases the average message delay. PV increases the average message delay by up to 90% and decreases the saturation throughput by up to 29% compared with nominal characteristics of different routing algorithms. Adaptive routing algorithm should be manipulated with the PV. A novel PV delay and congestion aware routing (PDCR) algorithm is proposed for asynchronous network-on-chip design. PDCR is adaptive, low cost, and scalable. The novel routing algorithm outperforms different adaptive routing algorithms in the average delay and saturation throughput for various traffic patterns. PDCR can achieve up to 12%–32% average message delay lower than that of other routing algorithms. Moreover, the proposed scheme yields improvements in saturation throughput by up to 11%–82% compared with other adaptive routing algorithms.

To improve the performance of route overhead and packet dropped rate of routing algorithms in mobile ad hoc networks, a location-based grid routing (LBGR) algorithm is presented. By node position information, the LBGR algorithm employs a grid-constructed trajectory instead of node ID in forwarding packets. Based on the position relationship of nodes and downstream grids, each intermediate node infers the next hop to relay packets. Therefore, it can adapt to frequent and unpredictable topology changes in the presence of high mobility and greatly enhance the robustness of route maintenance. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm can reduce route overhead, packet dropped rate and the average number of hops per path

Delay Tolerant Networks enable data transmission in different applications, mainly in environments where communication infrastructure is missing. The existence of links is casual and even when links are created, they are short in time and unstable/unreliable in terms of connectivity. Thus, underwater network applications tend to be delay tolerant. In this paper, we propose a mobility-aware routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks. The protocol is based on Focused Beam Routing (FBR) protocol and considers nodes’ next destination location when making forwarding decisions. The routing protocol is called Destination-aware Focused Beam Routing (D-FBR) protocol and we compare its performance with FBR protocol for different FBR angles and different applications. We use Delivery Probability (DP), Average Number of Hops (ANH), Overhead Ratio (OR) and simulate our scenarios by The ONE simulator. Simulation results show that, for D-FBR protocol, when FBR angle is 30 ∘ , OR and ANH is improved by 34.5 % and 23.1 %, respectively, while DP is 6.5 % lower, compared to FBR protocol. Both D-FBR and FBR outperform Epidemic Routing Protocol.

SummaryIn opportunistic networks (OppNets), which are characterized by intermittent end‐to‐end connections, the messages are routed in a store‐carry‐and‐forward fashion using the locally inferred knowledge about the behavior of nodes. As such, most OppNets routing protocols use social metrics that are dependent on the nodes' past information. But the participation of nodes in the message forwarding process is not guaranteed without incentivizing them because most nodes are reluctant in sharing their private resources for public uses. In this paper, some socially derived psychological attributes of a node are introduced to ensure their trustworthy participation in the message forwarding process, leading to the design of an altruism‐dependent trust‐based data forwarding mechanism for OppNets (called ATDTN). In this protocol, each node is associated with a dynamically changing altruism value representing its trust in the network, which is used to determine its status with regard to its participation in message forwarding. Through trace‐driven simulations using the ONE simulator, it is shown that ATDTN outperforms IronMan and SimBet protocols for routing in OppNets (respectively, 18% and 48% improvement), in terms of delivery ratio, end‐to‐end delay, overhead count, and average number of hops, under varying buffer size and time‐to‐live.

It is well known that routing overhead minimization is a primary pursuit of routing protocol developers. However, proactive protocols usually tend to increase routing overhead as network size grows. The fuzzy sighted link state (FSLS) protocol family is a set of routing algorithms that are shown to have very good routing overhead characteristics and also the ability to scale. We propose a scheme that augments the already good characteristics of the hazy sighted link state (HSLS) protocol, a special case of the FSLS protocol family. Simulations show a significant reduction of routing packets transmitted, with minor effect on throughput, average number of hops and mean data packet delay metrics.

Structured peer-to-peer systems are popular solutions for large scale distributed computing and query processing. Heterogeneity among peers calls for peer virtualization to maintain a simple, yet powerful peer-to-peer overlay network. Nevertheless, peer virtualization generates a huge number of virtual peers and causes the unnecessary communication overhead in the routing process. In this paper, we propose a new peer-to-peer routing algorithm that reduces the number of hops of message forwarding and improves the performance of routing. We study the new and previous algorithms from the analytical perspective and through simulations. It shows that the average number of hops per query is improved by 15% to 25% in our algorithm. In addition, we propose a Top-k peer selection algorithm for load balancing to find out the top k best available nodes in the P2P network with 2(N-1) messages within 2O(logN) hops. (N is the number of physical nodes.) The load balancing scheme is based on multiple factors which could be optimized on cost, proximity, reputation and other factors.

Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) is a promising cost-effective technology for the privacy confined military applications and healthcare applications like remote health monitoring, telemedicine, and e-health services. The use of a Software-Defined Network (SDN) approach improves the control and management processes of the complex structured WBANs and also provides higher flexibility and dynamic network structure. To seamless routing performance in SDN-based WBAN, the energy-efficiency problems must be tackled effectively. The main contribution of this paper is to develop a novel Energy Optimized Congestion Control based on Temperature Aware Routing Algorithm (EOCC-TARA) using Enhanced Multi-objective Spider Monkey Optimization (EMSMO) for SDN-based WBAN. This algorithm overcomes the vital challenges, namely energy-efficiency, congestion-free communication, and reducing adverse thermal effects in WBAN routing. First, the proposed EOCC-TARA routing algorithm considers the effects of temperature due to the thermal dissipation of sensor nodes and formulates a strategy to adaptively select the forwarding nodes based on temperature and energy. Then the congestion avoidance concept is added with the energy-efficiency, link reliability, and path loss for modeling the cost function based on which the EMSMO provides the optimal routing. Simulations were performed, and the evaluation results showed that the proposed EOCC-TARA routing algorithm has superior performance than the traditional routing approaches in terms of energy consumption, network lifetime, throughput, temperature control, congestion overhead, delay, and successful transmission rate.

In the last few years, Network-on-Chip (NoC) has emerged as a dominant paradigm for synthesis of a multi-core Systems-on-Chip (SoC). A future NoC architecture must be general enough to allow volume production and must have features for specialization and configuration to match and meet the application’s power and performance requirements. This chapter describes how one important aspect, namely the routing algorithm, can be optimized in such NoC platforms. Routing algorithm has a major effect on the performance (packet latency and throughput) as well as power consumption of NoC. A methodology to develop efficient and deadlock free routing algorithms which are specialized for an application or a set of concurrent applications is presented. The methodology, called application-specific routing algorithms (APSRA), exploits the application-specific information regarding pairs of cores which communicate and other pairs which never communicate in the NoC platform. This information is used to maximize the adaptivity of the routing algorithm without compromising the important property of deadlock freedom. The chapter also presents an extensive comparison between the routing algorithms generated using APSRA methodology and general purpose deadlock-free routing algorithms. The simulation-based evaluations are performed using both synthetic traffic and traffic from real applications. The comparison embraces several performance indices such as degree of adaptiveness, average delay, throughput, power dissipation, and energy consumption. In spite of an adverse impact on router architecture, it is shown that the higher adaptivity of APSRA leads to significant improvements in both routing performance and energy consumption.

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (Wimax) is power station through which mobile network, commonly known as A Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) is used by the people. A MANET can be described as an infrastructure-less and self-configure network with autonomous nodes. Participated nodes in MANETs move through the network constantly causing frequent topology changes. Designing suitable routing protocols to handle the dynamic topology changes in MANETs can enhance the performance of the network. In this regard, this paper proposes four algorithms for the routing problem in MANETs. First, we propose a new method called Classical Logic-based Routing Algorithm for the routing problem in MANETs. Second is a routing algorithm named Fuzzy Logic-based Routing Algorithm (FLRA). Third, a Reinforcement Learning-based Routing Algorithm is proposed to construct optimal paths in MANETs. Finally, a fuzzy logic-based method is accompanied with reinforcement learning to mitigate existing problems in FLRA. This algorithm is called Reinforcement Learning and Fuzzy Logic-based (RLFLRA) Routing Algorithm. Our proposed approaches can be deployed in dynamic environments and take four important fuzzy variables such as available bandwidth, residual energy, mobility speed, and hop-count into consideration. Simulation results depict that learning process has a great impact on network performance and RLFLRA outperforms other proposed algorithms in terms of throughput, route discovery time, packet delivery ratio, network access delay, and hop-count.

Aiming to reduce energy consumption, minimize transmission latency, and optimize the long-term performance of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), this paper proposes an improved routing model of Directed Diffusion. We formulated the routing issue as a partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP), such that the optimal nodes selection policy yielded by maximizing the expected reward. Since the solution of POMDP is ready-made, the attention is concentrated only on the formulation of the routing issue into a POMDP model, more specifically, the definition of the tuple which contains states, actions, observations, transition probabilities, observation probabilities, and reward function. Our experimental study shows that the POMDP-based Directed Diffusion routing outperforms other routing techniques in terms of three widely used metrics including average dissipated energy, average delay, and average lifetime.

The basis of a QoS-based routing algorithm is a dynamic network dependent cost function that is used to find the optimal or at least a feasible route across the network. However, all QoS-based routing algorithms suffer from a major drawback. The cost function at the core of the algorithms identifies segments of the network where resources are ample and exploits them to the benefit of connections that would otherwise cross a congested portion of the network. Thus, the algorithms consume more resources than Minimum Hop routing would do when the network traffic is non-stationary and heavy. QoS-based routing, thus, wastes resources and performs poorly compared with Minimum Hop routing in the event of congestion. The crux of the discussion is that whatever is gained at low or medium network loads, is offset at high network loads. What is required is a resilient algorithm that either allows the migration of a QoS-based routing algorithm to a Minimum Hop algorithm at high loads or an algorithm that merges Minimum Hop and QoS characteristics. The study opts for the latter approach and proposes and exhibits a hop constrained QoS routing algorithm that outperforms traditional QoS routing algorithms during simulation. This routing technique is based on an approximation algorithm that solves the hop constrained routing problem. The algorithm is derived from a dynamic programming FPAS scheme and finds the shortest walk for a single source destination pair in a graph with restricted number of hops when all the edge costs are non-negative. Simulated results demonstrate that routing technique based on the algorithm is robust to changes in the traffic pattern and consistently outperforms other QoS based routing techniques under heavy load conditions.

In today’s society, the application of multimedia data is increasing, and the accompanying data security is also an important issue. This paper will analyze the data security of multimedia network based on routing algorithm. The advantages of wireless local area networks (WLAN) and ad hoc networks are combined in wireless mesh networks (WMNs), which have steadily grown to be a reliable method of wireless broadband access. The application of multi RF and multi-channel technology improves the performance of WMN. However, the limitation that includes the number of wireless network interface cards and channels in the network, results in the great challenges ofrouting and channel allocation in multi RF and multi-channel WMN. Based on AODV algorithm, this paper proposes a new cross layer routing algorithm which is JRCA-AODV algorithm. The simulation results demonstrate that the JRCA-AODValgorithm can successfully increase multiRF multi-channel WMN throughput while lowering packet loss rate and network delay. Take the packet rate of 8 Mbps as an example, the network throughput based on JRCA-AODV algorithm is 1.14 times that of MRMC-AODV algorithm, the packet loss rate based on JRCA-AODV algorithm is 14.06% lower than that of MRMC-AODV algorithm, and the network time delay based on JRCA-AODV algorithm is 14.27% lower than that of MRMC-AODV algorithm. At the same time, JRCA-AODV algorithm can effectively reduce the probability of data loss caused by the competitive and shared access mechanism of the channel, improve the success rate of data transmission, thus reduce the probability of data eavesdropping and tampering in the process of repeated transmission, and improve the security of multimedia network data.This will provide a new direction for promoting the idea of multimedia data security.

Inter-satellite data routing is a fundamental issue that must be addressed to achieve efficient global satellite directto- device communication in the large-scale LEO satellite network (LSN). Existing routing algorithms are inadequate for enabling satellite direct-to-device communication in LSN due to protocol incompatibility, excessive overhead, or performance limitations. Facing these challenges, this paper investigates a novel pathinformed distributed routing algorithm based on collaborative deep reinforcement learning (PI-CDRL) to achieve highperformance and scalable distributed inter-satellite routing in dynamic LSN. We first design a virtual geographic node-assisted routing process to help devices and satellites establish mappings under dynamic conditions. Building on this foundation, the sustained path information following packet transmission completion is leveraged to facilitate collaborative training among satellites, effectively mitigating the sub-optimal performance limitations induced by partial observation and enabling satellite nodes to make accurate real-time routing decisions. Simulation results demonstrate that the successful transmission rate and average latency of PI-CDRL outperform those of baseline distributed routing methods under identical network conditions. Furthermore, our proposed method exhibits robustness in performance as the network scale expands and topology changes due to the ability to fully utilize the path information.

Researching on delay tolerant networks is an emerging field. Many researchers are dedicated to the approach of the routing algorithms and its applications. With sufficient energy in the core-nodes in the networks, a nested source spray and wait routing algorithm, which is ameliorated from source spray and wait routing algorithm, has been put forward in this paper. The simulation results indicate that by increasing the cost of energy consumption at the core-nodes, this routing algorithm has better performances in terms of delivery probability and the average delay.

In recent years, several investigations have been made on "challenged network" [also known as, delay tolerant network (DTN)] architectures highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. In spite of its inherent shortcomings of unreliability and delay, smart-phone based opportunistic network is gaining immense popularity in the research community due to its applicability in different adverse and extreme communication scenarios where traditional communication infrastructure is either unavailable or incapacitated for a long time. Considerable research has been conducted till date to design efficient network architecture for emergency data dissemination in intermittently connected/challenged networks. Different architectures (ranging from flat to multi-tier) are proposed for implementing opportunistic DTN keeping in view of specific application requirements. However, very few of these proposed architectures have been examined from the perspective of a post disaster communication. Moreover, most DTN architectures are designed by aiming towards increasing delivery probability and reducing latency and as a whole, maximizing network throughput; with very little emphasis on its energy efficiency. The impact of different mobility patterns on existing DTN routing algorithms with respect to data dissemination and energy consumption has also not been studied so far. Our objective, in this paper, is to investigate the impact of different mobility patterns on existing DTN routing protocols and existing DTN architectures and subsequently, come up with a suitable energy efficient DTN framework combining suitable architecture and routing protocol that may be used to offer different disaster management services during post-disaster relief operation. We have done an extensive simulation on ONE simulator with different categories of well-known existing DTN architectures, mobility models, DTN routing protocols to study the network performance in terms of delivery probability, energy efficiency and overhead ratio. Based on the simulation results, we have tried to figure out a suitable combination of energy efficient architecture, mobility model and routing protocol that fits well in the post disaster communication scenario.