Second and Foreign Language Learning Through Classroom Interaction

Brave New Digital Classroom: Technology and Foreign Lan- guage Learning by Robert J. Blake. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 2008, vii-189 pp. Reviewed by Hye Ri Stephanie Kim University of California, Los Angeles Technology in the 21st century is not an option, but is a vital part of students’ lives. In the efforts to keep up with and take advantage of technological advance- ment, many schools integrate technology into their curriculum. However, one some- times comes across teaching practices that are technology-driven on one end of the extreme while on the other are teaching practices embodied by teachers’ resistance to use technology. Brave New Digital Classroom: Technology and Foreign Language Learning by Robert J. Blake aims to address all prevalent issues of instructional technology use and provides an overview of the most successful technologies used in language classrooms. In short, this small but highly resourceful book is the first of its kind to offer a comprehensive summary of technologies developed to assist language learning, with an emphasis on foreign language classrooms. It would serve as an excellent resource for language curriculum developers or instructors considering incorporating technologies into their program or teaching, as well as for graduate students who wish to get an overview on this topic. In the Preface and Chapter 1, Blake clearly sets the goal of the book and the theoretical basis from which his view on the incorporation of technology originates. The book is not intended to provide instructions on how to use technological tools. Instead, it offers an overview and evaluation of research and successfully used tools, thereby helping the readers to gain a broader understanding of them and encouraging the readers to conduct further research. The asset of the book lies in the fact that incorporation of technology is motivated based on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories, in particular the Interactionist Model, which states that social interaction is necessary for and facilitates L2 learning. It is an undeniable fact that living in a country where the target language is spoken provides students with abundant opportunities for input and social interaction. However, this is not a possible option for all learners. By presenting this gap between the ideal and the reality, the book guides the readers to the big question: Can technology then provide more opportunities for social interaction in classrooms? The book mainly focuses on answering this question. In addition, Blake emphasizes that the deci- sion to incorporate technology should be driven by principles of second language acquisition and should only be used in the service of language teaching and learning. By presenting such viewpoints in the beginning, Blake first sets up a rationale for and then justifies the use of technology in language classrooms. Issues in Applied Linguistics © 2009, Regents of the University of California ISSN 1050-4273 Vol. 17 No. 1, 67-69

Although several researchers have demonstrated that foreign language (FL) learning experience has a limited effect on the short-term development of second language (L2) fluency, recent studies have suggested that learners can gain long-term (over one year) benefits from FL learning experiences. As a part of the present study, 50 Japanese university students were exposed to L2 learning experience over the course of one academic year to monitor its impact on L2 fluency measures (i.e. speed, breakdown, and repair fluency) in FL context. The relationship between the development of L2 fluency measures and learners’ learning experiences inside and outside the classroom was also investigated. The results showed a significant decrease in the length of between-clause and within-clause pauses that learners made. Furthermore, the correlational analysis showed that their L2 learning experience was uniquely associated with the development of between-clause pause frequency and repair frequency. These findings suggest that, while relatively long-term FL learning impacts the development of L2 fluency, it produces a unique pattern, whereby the effectiveness of FL learning is influenced by how students make the best use of their learning experiences.

Language anxiety has serious repercussions for the process of foreign language (FL) learning and use. Some scholars (e.g., MacIntyre, 1999) even consider it the strongest predictor of success in FL learning. At the same time, several studies have suggested that the most anxiety-generating skill is speaking and that the FL aspect which frequently causes apprehension and fear of being ridiculed is pronunciation (e.g., Phillips, 1992; Price, 1991; Young, 1992). Interestingly, though several language-specific anxiety types have been identified and tools to measure them have been devised, no attempt to examine in depth the construct of anxiety related specifically to FL pronunciation and to design an instrument to diagnose it has been made. A better understanding of the concept seems particularly important when taking into account the fact that speaking is a condition necessary for acquisition (e.g., Savignon, 2005; Skehan, 1989) and that pronunciation anxiety (PA) appears to be significantly related to students’ willingness to communicate in the FL classroom (Baran-Łucarz, 2014a). The present paper has three major aims. First of all, it presents a working model of PA, whose underlying subcomponents are pronunciation self-perceptions (pronunciation self-image, self-efficacy and self-assessment), fear of negative evaluation, and a set of beliefs about pronunciation learning, its role in communication, and about how it sounds. Secondly, the initial version of an instrument (i.e., the Measure of Pronunciation Anxiety in the FL Classroom), designed to measure the construct is introduced. Thirdly, results of piloting the questionnaire among 151 young adults, and establishing its reliability and validity are reported. The paper closes with suggestions on how to refine the instrument and ideas for future research in this area.

The use of the first language (L1) in the English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom is becoming an on-going debate. A newly growing view to the use of L1 in the foreign language (FL) classroom called translanguaging views that by utilizing the L1 along with the TL in FL classroom is considered as functional practice of languages rather than an impediment in FL learning. Accordingly it is necessary to find out the functions of teachers’ practice of translanguaging in the EFL classroom since this view has not been much researched yet. Related to this, the current study was intended to find out the functions of the EFL teachers’ translanguaging and to find out the teachers’ reasons for the use of translanguaging. This study followed qualitative descriptive interactive research design, and the subjects consisted of three English teachers at the 7th grade classes at two junior high schools in Singaraja. The data were collected through observations and interviews and were analyzed descriptive qualitatively. The results of this study showed that there were 3 functions of translanguaging. The most frequent function was related to knowledge construction, followed by classroom management, and interpersonal relations. There were 9 reasons for the teachers’ use of translanguaging, namely: to facilitate students’ understanding, to provide L1 and TL comparison, to elicit students’ responses, to attract students’ attention, tomanage students, to promote discipline, to develop deeper personal relationship, to create secure classroom atmosphere, and to make the class more interesting. In sum, the use of translanguaging plays a number of functions in the EFL classroom but it should be considered also the ‘optimal’ use of it in EFL learning process because the overuse of L1 might bring negative impact.

The recent advent of more powerful machine translation (MT) tools has significant implications for foreign language teaching and learning. While current research and pedagogical guidelines on MT in the foreign and second language classroom have focused primarily on survey data, less is known about how students actually use MT tools. The current article chronicles a computer tracking study of novice learners of French as a Foreign Language (n=26) as a way to inform this field of research. Drawing on diverse data sources (screen-recorded observations, retrospective recalls, post-interviews) and a Critical Incident Technique analytical approach, the article showcases the actions and cognitive processes related to MT that both supported and hindered student participants in their foreign language writing. Supportive behaviors and mindsets centered on a specific awareness of MT tool limitations paired with appropriate action while detrimental behaviors and mindsets centered on inappropriate input, lack of output analysis, and time. Suggestions for how these use-based findings might inform how MT is discussed in the language classroom conclude the article.

Family factors significantly influence the development of critical thinking (CT) dispositions. Yet, the dynamics of this influence among foreign language (FL) learners remain underexplored, with potential moderating factors still unclear. Building on social capital theory, social support theory, and ecological systems theory, this study explored this relationship among FL learners and further investigated whether teacher support moderates this connection. A total of 16,006 secondary students from China participated in the study, spanning grades 7 through 12 (M age = 14.842 years, SD = 1.416). Data were collected using student-reported CT disposition scale, FL teacher support scale, and SES questionnaire. Multiple regression analysis revealed a positive relationship between SES and CT dispositions of FL learners. Furthermore, moderation analysis showed that teacher support positively moderated this relationship. That is, higher levels of teacher support enhanced the positive effect of SES on CT dispositions among FL learners. This research has both theoretical and practical implications for the development of CT dispositions among FL learners.

Feedback has been vital and essential in all educational settings and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom interaction draws no distinction. It contributes to students' language learning and achievement. It, when involves learners during classroom interactions, becomes oral corrective feedback and has been viewed as a dynamic practice for EFL teachers to correct their learners’ mistakes on the spot. This study investigated teachers' oral corrective feedback practices in an online EFL classroom interactions context. Furthermore, it correlated teachers' responses with the type of oral corrective feedback, gender, and years of experience. To achieve the study objectives, the descriptive-correlational method was used. A questionnaire and a semi-structured interview were applied to a sample of 61 EFL teachers. The results of the questionnaire revealed that EFL teachers consistently practiced oral corrective feedback in online classroom interactions. Also, no significant differences were shown in the study sample's responses based on the type of oral corrective feedback, implicit or explicit, gender, and years of teaching experience. Considering the study findings, some implications and recommendations are suggested.

The difficulties which many dyslexic students encounter in the learning of the English language often extend to the learning of a foreign language in school. Although this problem has been acknowledged for some time, and although the learning of a modern foreign language is a core element in the Scottish curriculum, there has been little research into how modern languages can be presented to offer the best learning opportunities to dyslexic students. Dyslexic students are likely to benefit from a multisensory approach to the learning of a modern foreign language, and it seems likely that they will need to utilize similar strategies to those used for learning their first language. Strategies are discussed with a view to making modern language learning more appropriate for students with difficulties in learning.

Littlewood’s early stance on the use of students’ first language (L1) in the foreign language (L2) classroom was that maximum use of the target language (TL) enhances language acquisition. He suggested that this precept has been pervasive in every communicatively-oriented language teaching method and has also been widely accepted in official curricula in a range of contexts due to an understanding that TL use should be normative in classroom interactions. A strong rationale for advocating this ‘monolingual principle’ has been that, for many students, the L2 classroom provides the only opportunity to be exposed to the TL. Littlewood and Yu (2011. First language and target language in the foreign language classroom. Language Teaching 44, no. 1: 64–77) recognised, however, that teachers and students do make use of students’ L1 in L2 classrooms and suggested several ways in which teachers might do this legitimately. Furthermore, Littlewood (e.g. 2014. Communication-oriented language teaching: where are we now? Where do we go from here? Language Teaching 47, no. 3: 349–362) conceded that exclusive TL use has become subject to active questioning in recent years. The phenomenon of translanguaging takes arguments that support L1 use beyond Littlewood’s earlier suggestions. There are also implications for TBLT where extensive L2/TL use is the default position but where translanguaging practices are not necessarily at odds with the central task construct. This paper explores translanguaging in the contexts of TBLT and the monolingual principle.

Shao et al. (2023) make a number of critical comments on our previous research on foreign language (FL) emotions, but also add debatable claims, present an inaccurate view of existing research and present an instrument, the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire – Second Language Learning (AEQ-L2L), that does not capture the full range of habitual positive and negative emotions in regular FL classrooms by focusing exclusively on learner emotions during exams. We agree with the authors that some early scales had unclear factor structures but claiming that therefore these scales are invalid and unreliable is unjustified. We do not deny that the AEQ can provide a comprehensive measure of emotion, but it does not prioritize the context which is fundamental in research on FL learners’ classroom emotions. Moreover, the AEQ-L2L is too long to be reasonably included in complex studies.

This article discusses the importance of the role of pragmatics in teaching and learning a foreign language. The issue of teaching pragmatics in a foreign language classroom is relevant today, as the younger generation who is learning a foreign language must be familiar with its language levels and rules of language use in order to learn and communicate successfully in social and academic environment. But often foreign language teachers are unable to present pragmatic ability in the classroom as long as there are shortcomings in how to teach pragmatics or they are not able to put it into practice sufficiently. At a time when the prestige of foreign language teaching and learning is growing, the number of studies on pragmatics teaching is also increasing. It is especially important to develop the skills between the teacher and the student to be able to use it in communication, especially in requesting and inviting.

In this globalized world, foreign language learning has become increasingly imperative. Despite the absence of an optimal linguistic environment, a heightened level of motivation is essential for mastering a foreign language. Learners are likely to experience demotivation when they exert significant effort in language acquisition without experiencing immediate improvement in their language proficiency. Consequently, understanding the motivational constructs in foreign language learning, particularly at the onset of the learning process, is vital. To this end, a quantitative study was conducted utilizing Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory and Pintrich and De Groot’s (1990) motivational scale theory as the conceptual framework. The study involved administering a 26-item survey, which used 5-point Likert scales to 108 respondents studying French as a foreign language at a beginner level in a Malaysian public university. The survey was divided into four sections: demographic profile, instrumentality, expectancy, and valence. The findings revealed that learners exhibited both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and had a positive perception of the importance of foreign language acquisition. Additionally, respondents had a strong belief in their ability to attain a high grade through hard work, although the fear of failure negatively impacted their motivation levels. Notably, there was a significant relationship between instrumentality, expectancy, and valence. These findings provide valuable insights into the motivational factors involved in foreign language learning at the beginner level and can potentially contribute to the cultivation of motivation in the foreign language classroom.

In the field of second and foreign language learning, interaction has long been considered to play an important role. Studies taking a more traditional, formalist perspective on language and learning have focused on the role that interaction plays in helping learners to assimilate and internalize knowledge of linguistic forms in the target language. More recently, a group of scholars concerned with interaction and additional language learning, or the learning of languages other than the mother tongue, has begun to move away from this more traditional perspective and into areas outside of what has generally been considered the main focus of the applied linguistics field. Taking more of a sociocultural perspective on language and learning, this research is concerned with documenting the links between student participation in particular kinds of classroom interaction and their communicative development in the target language.

The fast and increasingly natural adoption of handheld devices such as smartphones and tablets into everyday life is a rapidly growing social phenomenon which is also believed to have vast potential for foreign language learning. The small-scale study presented in this article contributes to the discussion of whether handheld devices should be further integrated into or eliminated from the classroom by presenting part of the results of a small-scale study conducted in a German secondary English as a foreign language classroom. The study examined the impact of a mobile vocabulary learning app on secondary school students’ vocabulary performance, also giving some indications about the students’ development of foreign language learner autonomy. Although the results of the study showed an unexpectedly limited use of the app, they allow assumptions to be made about the reasons which prevented students from using the app more frequently which can influence future researchers’ and practitioners’ app choices. The first section of this article briefly outlines the theoretical framework of the study, particularly focussing on the potential of computer-assisted and mobile-assisted language learning for enhancing students’ foreign language skills and learner autonomy. The ensuing section then provides some background on investigating students’ foreign language vocabulary learning. This is followed by a presentation of the research design, including the main features of the app (Socrative) used in this study. The next section then critically discusses some of the major research results. The contribution concludes by summarising some of the outcomes of the study and outlining some gaps for further research.

The study aims to explore the roles of anxiety and motivation in foreign language learning. A total of 141 freshmen at a private university in south Taiwan served as subjects. The research instrument includes the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986), Motivation/attitude about foreign language learning (Gardner, 1985), as well as two English scores of Taiwan College Entrance Exam (CEE) and National English Test of Proficiency All on the Web (NETPAW). All available data were processed by SPSS 16 (Statistical Package of Social Science). Findings show the two English scores of CEE and NETPAW, as well as motivation, attitude and motivational intensity are strongly correlated to one another. In addition, motivational intensity is related to score of NETPAW, but anxiety is the best predictor of students' score of NETPAW positively. It's expected that the findings can provide teachers with some hints for more effective foreign language teaching and learning by being aware of students' individual differences.