Semisupervised Hyperspectral Band Selection Based on Dual-Constrained Low-Rank Representation

Feature extraction (FE) methods based on low-rank representation (LRR) have become important topics in hyperspectral images (HSIs) data analysis. In this paper, a supervised FE method for HSIs data based on LRR with the ability to preserve the local pairwise constraints information (LRLPC) is proposed. LRLPC does not change the data dimensionality and only employs a technique to enrich the original feature space (OFS) and to obtain enriched feature space, which results in features richer than OFS. To overcome the problem of LRR in lacking the local structure information (LSI) of data, a local discriminative regularization term is imposed on the fitness function of LRR to keep the LSI of data. For nonlinear structure of data, LRLPC is extended to kernel LRLPC (KLRLPC) using kernel trick. Utilization of existing information in the pairwise constraints is useful for limited labeled samples situations as a common problem in HSI data analysis. The obtained experimental results using two well-known HSI data sets confirm the effectiveness of LRLPC and KLRLPC for dimension reduction and classification of HSIs.

Hyperspectral remote sensing offers a powerful tool in many different application contexts. The imbalance between the high dimensionality of the data and the limited availability of training samples calls for the need to perform dimensionality reduction in practice. Among traditional dimensionality reduction techniques, feature extraction is one of the most widely used approaches due to its flexibility to transform the original spectral information into a subspace. In turn, band selection is important when the application requires preserving the original spectral information (especially the physically meaningful information) for the interpretation of the hyperspectral scene. In the case of hyperspectral image classification, both techniques need to discard most of the original features/bands in order to perform the classification using a feature set with much lower dimensionality. However, the discriminative information that allows a classifier to provide good performance is usually classdependent and the relevant information may live in weak features/bands that are usually discarded or lost through subspace transformation or band selection. As a result, in practice, it is challenging to use either feature extraction or band selection for classification purposes. Relevant lines of attack to address this problem have focused on multiple feature selection aiming at a suitable fusion of diverse features in order to provide relevant information to the classifier. In this paper, we present a new dimensionality reduction technique, called multiple criteria-based spectral partitioning, which is embedded in an ensemble learning framework to perform advanced hyperspectral image classification. Driven by the use of a multiple band priority criteria that is derived from classic band selection techniques, we obtain multiple spectral partitions from the original hyperspectral data that correspond to several band subgroups with much lower spectral dimensionality as compared with the original band set. An ensemble learning technique is then used to fuse the information from multiple features, taking advantage of the relevant information provided by each classifier. Our experimental results with two real hyperspectral images, collected by the reflective optics system imaging spectrometer (ROSIS) over the University of Pavia in Italy and the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) over the Salinas scene, reveal that our presented method, driven by multiple band priority criteria, is able to obtain better classification results compared with classic band selection techniques. This paper also discusses several possibilities for computationally efficient implementation of the proposed technique using various high-performance computing architectures.

There is a relative paucity of studies that seek to nonparametrically describe or categorize hyperspectral image (HSI) data in the most natural context within which those data are best represented: n-dimensional (n-D) hyperspace, where n is the number of bands in an HSI data cube. Statistical techniques-and specifically those based on second-order statistics-are predominant and generally do not provide (nor are they utilized to provide or 'leave behind') an understanding of the distribution of spectra in hyperspace for the purpose of discovering patterns, comparing data sets, developing a deeper understanding of HSI data, etc. With the terabytes of HSI data in archives today representing a huge diversity of geographical settings, it seems natural to enquire as to whether there are universal patterns among HSI data sets. If such patterns exist, new techniques may be developed to exploit them, e.g., to enhance information extraction speed and accuracy. Since an understanding of the nature of HSI data has rarely gone beyond cursory, visual assessments of geographical setting; i.e., assessments of whether the data are of desert, forest, urban, littoral, etc., environments, it is perhaps worthwhile to develop methods to probe n-D hyperspace with the intent to identify and describe universal data commonalities, differences, classifications, and patterns. Building upon earlier work (Resmini, 2003 [1], 2006 [2]), an algorithm was created to describe the volume (and label the individual volume elements) of hyperspace occupied by an HSI data set. The algorithm essentially discretizes hyperspace assigning addresses to boxes in which data points (i.e., spectra) reside. The algorithm has been applied to visible/near-infrared to shortwave infrared (VNIR/SWIR) and longwave infrared (LWIR) HSI data cubes. Implemented in C code, the algorithm may also be used to calculate the fractal dimension of any array of points in any n-D hyperspace because it is essentially an implementation of box counting. The algorithm is described as are results of its application to actual HSI data sets. The fractal dimension of HSI data derived from the algorithm are also presented and compared to principal componentsbased estimates of data dimensionality. Application of the algorithm for developing a deeper understanding of the nature of HSI data as viewed as points in hyperspace is discussed as are practical applications for 'traditional' HSI exploitation activities such as anomaly and target detection.

Recently, deep learning-based methods have made great progress in hyperspectral image (HSI) classification (HSIC). Different from ordinary images, the intrinsic complexity of HSIs data still limits the performance of many common convolutional neural network (CNN) models. Thus, the network architecture becomes more and more complex to extract discriminative spectral-spatial features. For instance, 3-D CNN usually has a large number of trainable parameters, thus increasing the computational complexity of the HSIC. In this letter, we designed a cooperative spectral-spatial attention dense network (CS <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> ADN) that takes raw 3-D HSI data as input data. Specifically, the attention module consists of spectral and spatial axes, by which the salient spectral-spatial features will be emphasized. Furthermore, we combined these attention modules with the dense connection, which is termed as the lightweight dense block; it has a lower computation cost and achieves better classification performance. At the same time, we introduced the center loss, by jointly using the supervision of the center loss and the softmax loss, where the discriminative features could be clearly observed, particularly for small data sets. Experimental results on the biased and unbiased HSI data show that our method outperforms several state-of-the-art methods in HSIC with small training samples.

Hyperspectral image (HSI) provided with a substantial number of correlated bands causes calculation consumption and an undesirable "dimension disaster" problem for the classification. Band selection (BS) is an effective measure to reduce the information redundancy with the physics spectrum preserved for HSI. Although the existing BS methods have achieved noticeable progress, the correlation between neighbor bands still needs to be mined deeply for an effective selection criterion. This paper proposes a BS approach to collecting the discriminative band subset for hyperspectral image classification (HSIC), which adopts the self-supervised learning paradigm to implement the BS by auxiliary spectrum rebuilding task. In specific, we utilized a Convolutional neural network (CNN) and Graph Convolutional Network (GCN) for the spectral-spatial feature extraction. Next, GCN and CNN are developed for the refinement of the band correlation sequentially. Afterward, the selected bands in terms of the acquired correlation are fed into the presented self-supervised spectrum rebuilding network for spectral reconstruction. Simultaneously, the proposed architecture completed the selection with the optimization of the band reconstruction by a defined loss function. In this way, we supply substitution for selection criterion and path searching through the end-to-end framework. The extensive experimental results and analysis demonstrated that the proposed hybrid architecture provided a competitive band subset for the classification, and the accuracies with different types of classifiers are more effective than the compared BS methods.

Hyperspectral image (HSI) classification has become a hot topic in the field of remote sensing. In general, the complex characteristics of hyperspectral data make the accurate classification of such data challenging for traditional machine learning methods. In addition, hyperspectral imaging often deals with an inherently nonlinear relation between the captured spectral information and the corresponding materials. In recent years, deep learning has been recognized as a powerful feature-extraction tool to effectively address nonlinear problems and widely used in a number of image processing tasks. Motivated by those successful applications, deep learning has also been introduced to classify HSIs and demonstrated good performance. This survey paper presents a systematic review of deep learning-based HSI classification literatures and compares several strategies for this topic. Specifically, we first summarize the main challenges of HSI classification which cannot be effectively overcome by traditional machine learning methods, and also introduce the advantages of deep learning to handle these problems. Then, we build a framework that divides the corresponding works into spectral-feature networks, spatial-feature networks, and spectral-spatial-feature networks to systematically review the recent achievements in deep learning-based HSI classification. In addition, considering the fact that available training samples in the remote sensing field are usually very limited and training deep networks require a large number of samples, we include some strategies to improve classification performance, which can provide some guidelines for future studies on this topic. Finally, several representative deep learning-based classification methods are conducted on real HSIs in our experiments.

Hyperspectral image (HSI) classification is an important technology for hyperspectral data analysis, which has the challenge of high dimensionality and limited training samples. Moreover, due to the spatial continuity of material distribution, it is reasonable to improve the performance of HSI classification from the local similarity viewpoint, i.e., pixels in the same local region have a high probability to share similar features. Therefore, in this paper, a novel method based on local similarity and kernel low-rank representation is proposed to improve the classification accuracy for HSI. First, taking into consideration that pixels in the same homogeneous region share similar spectral features (termed local similarity), the HSI is segmented by the superpixel segmentation algorithm to obtain the homogeneous regions. Then, a model of kernel low-rank representation based on local similarity (KLRRLS) is proposed for HSI classification. In the model of KLRRLS, the nonlinear structure characteristics of HSI are extracted by employing the kernel trick, and the low-rank constraint is used as a prior to restrict the recovery coefficient matrix in each segmentation region, thus efficiently solving the linear non-separable problem and exploiting the contextual information of HSI. Finally, the classification results are generated by fusing the result of each segmented map via the maximum voting mechanism. Experimental results on three real HSI datasets demonstrate that the proposed method can effectively improve the classification accuracy.

Most hyperspectral image (HSI) classification methods assume that all classes in the test set are present during training. However, in real-world applications, acquiring labeled training samples is challenging. As a result, it is difficult for the training dataset to cover all possible land cover types, leading to the generalized zero-shot learning (GZSL) problem. Recently, vision-language models (VLMs) have provided rich semantic priors for land cover classes, offering promising potential for GZSL. However, two fundamental gaps hinder their application to HSI classification: the task paradigm gap, arising from the difference between image-level VLMs and the pixel-level HSI classification task; and the knowledge gap, due to the inconsistency between VLM features and HSI spectral–spatial representations. To bridge both gaps, a novel framework leveraging VLM semantic priors for GZSL in HSI classification is proposed, primarily using pseudo-labeling technique to provide knowledge for unseen classes. Specifically, a pseudo-label generation and enhancement module enables a paradigm transition from image-level understanding to pixel-level classification by incorporating HSI’s spatial information. A pseudo-label correction module then refines noisy labels using spectral cues to address the knowledge gap. Finally, a global learning strategy integrates pseudo-label distillation, supervised learning, and feature regularization to classify seen classes while enabling generalization to unseen ones. Experiments on benchmark HSI datasets demonstrate the proposed method’s superiority in generalized zero-shot classification. This work highlights the potential of VLMs in advancing HSI classification in practical applications.

Hyperspectral Image (HSI) classification plays a key role remote sensing field. Recently, deep learning has demonstrated its effectiveness in HSI Classification field. This paper presents a spectral-spatial HSI classification technique established on the deep learning based deep belief network (DBN) for deep and abstract feature extraction and adaptive boundary adjustment based segmentation. Proposed approach focuses on integrating the deep learning based spectral features and segmentation based spatial features into a framework for improved performance. Specifically, first the deep DBN model is exploited as a spectral feature extraction based classifier to extract the deep spectral features. Second, spatial contextual features are obtained by utilizing effective adaptive boundary adjustment based segmentation technique. Finally, maximum voting based criteria is operated to integrate the results of extracted spectral and spatial information for improved HSI classification. In general, exploiting spectral features from DBN process and spatial features from segmentation and integration of spectral and spatial information by maximum voting based criteria, has a substantial effect on the performance of HSI classification. Experimental performance on real and widely used hyperspectral data sets with different contexts and resolutions demonstrates the accuracy of the proposed technique and performance is comparable to several recently proposed HSI classification techniques.

Hyperspectral imaging is concerned with the measurement, analysis, and interpretation of spectra acquired from a given scene (or specific object) at a short, medium or long distance by an airbone or satellite sensor. Over the last few years, hyperspectral image data sets have been collected for a great amount of locations over the world, using a variety of instruments for Earth observation. Despite the increasing importance of hyperspectral images in remote sensing applications, there is no common repository of hyperspectral data intended to distribute and share hyperspectral data sets in the community. Quite opposite, the hyperspectral data sets which are available for public use are spread among different storage locations and present significant heterogeneity regarding the storage format, associated meta-data (if any), or ground-truth availability. As a result, the development of a standardized hyperspectral data repository is a highly desired goal in the remote sensing community. In this paper, we take a necessary first step towards the development of a digital repository for remotely sensed hyperspectral data. The proposed system allows uploading new hyperspectral data sets along with meta-data, ground-truth and analysis results, with the ultimate goal of sharing publicly available hyperspectral images within the remote sensing community. The database has been designed in order to allow storing relevant information for the hyperspectral data available through the system, including basic image characteristics (width, height, number of bands, format) and more advanced meta-data (ground-truth information, publications in which the data has been used). The current implementation consists of a front-end to ease the management of images through a web interface, thus containing both synthetic and real hyperspectral images from two highly representative instruments, such as NASAs Airborne Visible Infra-Red Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) over the Cuprite Mining District in Nevada. Most importantly, the developed system includes a spectral unmixing-based content based image retrieval (CBIR) functionality which allows searching for images on the spectral unmixing information (spectrally pure components or endmembers and their associated abundances in the scene). This information is stored as meta-data associated to each hyperspectral image instance, and then used to search and retrieve images based on information content. This paper presents the design of the system and a preliminary validation of the unmixing-based retrieval functionality using both synthetic and real hyperspectral images stored in the database.

Recently, there have been continuous advancements in hyperspectral image classification (HSIC) approaches based on deep learning mechanisms. Nonetheless, information redundancy, high complexity and ineffective descriptions remain primary obstacles to present HSIC networks. In order to overcome these issues, an optimization-enabled deep convolutional neural network (Deep CNN) for HSIC is proposed in this work. Here, band selection, feature extraction, as well as classification are important tasks in processing these images. The band selection is performed by utilizing the double exponential smoothing-artificial flora optimization (DES-AFO) algorithm, which is the combination of double exponential smoothing (DES) and artificial flora optimization (AFO) for HSIC. There is a requirement for extracting competent features from hyperspectral imaging (HSI) to enhance the classifier’s accuracy. Here, the feature extraction is done by empirical wavelet transform and a convolutional neural network (CNN). As the next process, HSIC takes place using the Deep CNN, and it is trained by DES-AFO. The wide experimental outcomes on HSI show that the proposed mechanism has noteworthy benefits estimated with the conventional mechanisms concerning accuracy and TPR. Here, analysis states that the proposed mechanism obtained better accuracy and TPR values of 0.930, as well as 0.965.

Hyperspectral image (HSI) classification is a widely focused topic. Existing methods export discriminative features with low-quality distribution, which may induces classification performance degeneration. To remedy this deficiency, we propose a group-aware low-rank representation (GAL-RR) model to classify HSIs in this paper. Specifically, a group-wise regularization is introduced to capture the block-diagonal group structure of low-rank representation. With such regularization, the HSI pixels from one class are well clustered into the same subspace. In other words, the HSI feature representation is guaranteed with high-quality distribution and good discriminative information. In order to solve this built non-convex model, we design a proximal alternating optimization scheme. Furthermore, the SVM classifier is used to classify these low-rank representation forms. Extensive experiments are provided in this paper to verify the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed GALRR classification algorithm.

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and graph convolutional networks (GCNs) have made considerable advances in hyperspectral image (HSI) classification. However, most CNN-based methods learn features at a single-scale in HSI data, which may be insufficient for multi-scale feature extraction in complex data scenes. To learn the relations among samples in non-grid data, GCNs are employed and combined with CNNs to process HSIs. Nevertheless, most methods based on CNN-GCN may overlook the integration of pixel-wise spectral signatures. In this paper, we propose a pyramid cascaded convolutional neural network with graph convolution (PCCGC) for hyperspectral image classification. It mainly comprises CNN-based and GCN-based subnetworks. Specifically, in the CNN-based subnetwork, a pyramid residual cascaded module and a pyramid convolution cascaded module are employed to extract multiscale spectral and spatial features separately, which can enhance the robustness of the proposed model. Furthermore, an adaptive feature-weighted fusion strategy is utilized to adaptively fuse multiscale spectral and spatial features. In the GCN-based subnetwork, a band selection network (BSNet) is used to learn the spectral signatures in the HSI using nonlinear inter-band dependencies. Then, the spectral-enhanced GCN module is utilized to extract and enhance the important features in the spectral matrix. Subsequently, a mutual-cooperative attention mechanism is constructed to align the spectral signatures between BSNet-based matrix with the spectral-enhanced GCN-based matrix for spectral signature integration. Abundant experiments performed on four widely used real HSI datasets show that our model achieves higher classification accuracy than the fourteen other comparative methods, which shows the superior classification performance of PCCGC over the state-of-the-art methods.

Hyperspectral image (HSI) classification remains a challenging problem due to unique characteristics of HSI data (such as numerous bands and strong correlations in the spectral and spatial domains) and small sample size. To address such concerns, we propose a novel spectral–spatial feature extraction method for HSI classification by employing graph embedding and deep learning (DL) models. Since the conventional graph cannot capture the complex manifold relationship of HSI data, and there exist the observations of within-class variation as well as the similarity between different classes in the spectral domain, we construct the supervised within-class/between-class hypergraph (SWBH) to extract the spectral features of HSI. Since it is difficult for DL models to learn representative features for HSI data when the labeled training samples are limited, we propose the random zero settings to newly generate a large amount of labeled HSI samples for the training of convolutional neural network (CNN). The designed sample expanded CNN (SECNN) is used to extract the HSI spatial features. Thus, the spectral–spatial features of HSI can be learned by integrating the features extracted from SWBH and SECNN, respectively. Experiments on three real HSI datasets demonstrate higher classification accuracy of the proposed SWBH–SECNN method.

Recently, more and more multi-layer perceptron (MLP) -like models have been proposed. Among them, CycleMLP is good at dense feature prediction tasks, which is potentially useful for hyperspectral image (HSI) classification. However, the receptive field of CycleMLP tends to be cross-shaped, which will lead to insufficient spatial information extraction. Additionally, most of the HSI classification methods only use information from single HSI data. Lack of diversity in the features of a single modality limits classification performance. To address these issues, a novel spatial-spectral involution MLP network (SSIN) is proposed for HSI classification. SSIN contains two paths for extracting different kinds of information, namely the image path and the coordinate path. In the image path, we combine the MLP structure with the involution operation and propose involution MLP (InvoMLP). It obtains the spatial kernel weights corresponding to each pixel individually, thus improving the spatial interaction capability. At the same time, InvoMLP has the same receptive field range as conventional convolution, i.e., a rectangular receptive field. In the coordinate path, we build a lightweight module for extracting information. Unlike the information of images, the coordinates are intuitive information about the location distribution. Considering that the coordinate information contains the global spatial distribution of HSI, fusing it with the image information could improve long-distance dependencies of feature maps. Experimental results on four HSI datasets illustrate that SSIN can outperform some state-of-the-art methods.