Sensitization

Regional differences in the regulation of dopamine and noradrenaline release in medial frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens and caudate-putamen: a microdialysis study in the rat

Stimulus-evoked dopamine overflow in the rat nucleus accumbens is decreased following chronic haloperidol administration: an in vivo voltammetric study

Cocaine dependence is characterized by compulsive drug taking and reduced involvement in social, occupational, or recreational activities. Unraveling the diverse mechanisms contributing to the loss-of-interest in these 'non-drug' pursuits is essential for understanding the neurobiology of addiction and could provide additional targets for treating addiction. The study objectives were to examine changes in cocaine-induced dopamine (DA) overflow in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) over the course of self-administration and determine the roles of α1- and β-adrenergic receptors (AR) in the loss-of-interest in food rewards following the development of an addicted phenotype in male and female rats. Subjects were given access to cocaine and palatable food pellets in a choice self-administration paradigm to identify 'addicted' cocaine-preferring (CP) individuals and resistant pellet-preferring (PP) individuals based on their patterns of self-administration over 7 weeks. Cocaine-induced DA overflow in the NAc was examined with microdialysis early and late during self-administration (weeks 2 and 7). Subjects were treated in counter-balanced order with propranolol (β-AR antagonist), terazosin (α1-AR antagonist), or vehicle for an additional 3 weeks of self-administration. CP rats displayed increased motivation for cocaine and attenuated motivation for pellets following the development of cocaine preferences. In females, the estrous cycle affected pellet, but not cocaine, self-administration. CP rats displayed attenuated cocaine-induced DA overflow in the NAc. Propranolol enhanced cocaine reinforcement and reduced pellet intake, whereas terazosin enhanced motivation for pellets and reversed preferences in a subset of CP rats. The implications of these results for the treatment of addiction are discussed.

Previous exposure to amphetamine leads to enhanced locomotor and nucleus accumbens (NAcc) dopamine (DA) responding to the drug as well as enhanced amphetamine self-administration. Here, we investigated the effects of exposure to Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannibinol (Δ(9)-THC) on behavioral and biochemical responding to amphetamine. Rats in different groups received five exposure injections of vehicle or one of five doses of Δ(9)-THC (0.4, 0.75, 1.5, 3.0, and 6.0 mg/kg i.p.) and were tested 2 days and 2 weeks later. Exposure to all but the lowest and highest doses of Δ(9)-THC enhanced the locomotor response to amphetamine (0.75 mg/kg i.p.), but all failed to enhance NAcc DA overflow in response to the drug. Moreover, exposure to 3.0 mg/kg i.p. Δ(9)-THC increased forskolin-evoked adenylyl cyclase activity in the NAcc and rats' locomotor response to the direct DA receptor agonist apomorphine (1.0 mg/kg s.c.), suggesting that Δ(9)-THC sensitized locomotor responding to amphetamine by up-regulating postsynaptic DA receptor signaling in the NAcc. Finally, amphetamine self-administration (200 μg/kg/infusion i.v.) was enhanced in amphetamine (5 × 1.5 mg/kg i.p.)-exposed rats, but not in rats exposed to Δ(9)-THC (5 × 3.0 mg/kg i.p.). Previous exposure to this dose of Δ(9)-THC modestly increased apomorphine SA (0.5 mg/kg/infusion i.v.). Thus, unlike amphetamine exposure, exposure to Δ(9)-THC does not enhance the subsequent NAcc DA response to amphetamine or promote amphetamine self-administration. Although Δ(9)-THC leads to alterations in postsynaptic DA receptor signaling in the NAcc and these can affect the generation of locomotion, these neuroadaptations do not seem to be linked to the expression of enhanced amphetamine self-administration.

Interactions between dopamine (DA) and glutamate in the nucleus accumbens (NA) are important for a variety of cognitive and limbic functions. Although, there is strong evidence that DA controls glutamate responses, the converse (glutamate affecting DA release) is controversial. To determine whether endogenous glutamate released from corticostriatal terminals can evoke DA release by local interactions in the NA, we measured DA release with amperometry simultaneously with whole cell recordings from NA medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in a slice preparation preserving DA terminals (but not cell bodies) and cortico-accumbens fibers. MSNs responded to cortical stimulation with a postsynaptic potential that was blocked by the AMPA antagonist CNQX, but no DA overflow was detected with the carbon fiber electrode. This absence of DA release cannot be accounted for by a deterioration of the DA terminals in this slice preparation since DA release was evoked with a caudal stimulation in the same slices. The DA signal was modulated as expected by bath application of a DA transporter blocker. The data show that cortico-striatal activation does not induce DA release by local interactions, suggesting that observations of glutamate-evoked DA release previously reported in vivo may be taking place via an extra-NA circuit.

HIV-1 protein Tat potentiation of methamphetamine-induced decreases in evoked overflow of dopamine in the striatum of the rat

Inhibition of dopamine release with simultaneous chemosensory excitation by hypercapnia with and without [Ca 2+] 0 in the cat carotid body

Endogenous striatal dopamine (DA) overflow has been associated with neuropathological conditions resulting from ischemia, psychostimulants, and metabolic inhibition. Malonate, a reversible inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase, models the effects of energy impairment in neurodegenerative disorders. We have previously reported that the striatal DA efflux and damage to DA nerve terminals resulting from intrastriatal malonate infusions is prevented by prior DA depletion, suggesting that DA plays a role in the neuronal damage. We presently report that the malonate-induced DA efflux is partially mediated by reverse transport of DA from the cytosol to the extracellular space via the DA transporter (DAT). Pharmacological blockade of the DAT with a series of structurally different inhibitors [cocaine, mazindol, 1-(2-(bis(4-fluophenyl methoxy) ethyl)-4-(3-(4-fluorophenyl)-propyl)piperazine) dimethane sulfonate (GBR 13098) and methyl(-)-3beta-(p-fluorophenyl)-1alphaH,5alphaH-tropane-2beta-carboxylate1,5-naphthalene (Win 35,428)] attenuated malonate-induced DA overflow in vivo and protected mice against subsequent damage to DA nerve terminals. Consistent with these findings, the DAT inhibitors prevented malonate-induced damage to DA neurons in mesencephalic cultures and also protected against the loss of GABA neurons in this system. The DAT inhibitors did not modify malonate-induced formation of reactive oxygen species or lactate production, indicating that the DAT inhibitors neither exert antioxidant effects nor interfere with the actions of malonate. Taken together, these findings provide direct evidence that mitochondrial impairment and metabolic stress cause striatal DA efflux via the DAT and suggest that disruptions in DA homeostasis resulting from energy impairment may contribute to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.

Enhanced effects of 6-hydroxydopamine on evoked overflow of striatal dopamine in aged rats

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative brain diseases; it is accompanied by extensive loss of dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra that project to the putamen, leading to impaired motor functions. Several genes have been associated with hereditary forms of the disease and transgenic mice have been developed by a number of groups to produce animal models of PD and to explore the basic functions of these genes. Surprisingly, most of the various mouse lines generated such as Parkin KO, Pink1 KO, DJ-1 KO and LRRK2 transgenic have been reported to lack degeneration of nigral DA neuron, one of the hallmarks of PD. However, modest impairments of motor behavior have been reported, suggesting the possibility that the models recapitulate at least some of the early stages of PD, including early dysfunction of DA axon terminals. To further evaluate this possibility, here we provide for the first time a systematic comparison of DA release in four different mouse lines, examined at a young age range, prior to potential age-dependent compensations. Using fast scan cyclic voltammetry in striatal sections prepared from young, 6–8 weeks old mice, we examined sub-second DA overflow evoked by single pulses and action potential trains. Unexpectedly, none of the models displayed any dysfunction of DA overflow or reuptake. These results, compatible with the lack of DA neuron loss in these models, suggest that molecular dysfunctions caused by the absence or mutation of these individual genes are not sufficient to perturb the function and survival of mouse DA neurons.

Dopamine overflow in the nucleus accumbens during extinction and reinstatement of cocaine self-administration behavior

1. The effects of (+)-amphetamine on electrically evoked dopamine overflow were examined in the rat brain slice containing either anterior caudate putamen (aCPu) or nucleus accumbens (NAc), by fast cyclic voltammetry. 2. (+)-Amphetamine (1 microM) caused a time-dependent increase in the extracellular concentration of dopamine ([dopamine]ex) due to displacement of dopamine from terminal sites. After a 40 min superfusion, [dopamine]ex in the aCPu was 0.617 +/- 0.117 microM and in the NAc was 0.270 +/- 0.04 microM. Pretreatment with (-)-sulpiride (1 microM) did not affect this action of (+)-amphetamine. 3. (+)-Amphetamine (1 microM) exhibited a complex and time-dependent effect on electrically stimulated dopamine overflow, evoked by 1p, 4p/10 Hz and 20p/20 Hz. 4. In the aCPu, (+)-amphetamine (1 microM) resulted in attenuation of dopamine overflow due to 1p and 4p/10 Hz but potentiation of dopamine overflow to 20p/20 Hz. (-)-Sulpiride (1 microM) prior to (+)-amphetamine (1 microM) reversed the attenuation of dopamine overflow evoked by 1p and 4p/10 Hz but had no significant effect on dopamine overflow evoked by 20p/20 Hz. 5. (+)-Amphetamine (1 microM) potentiated dopamine overflow in the NAc to all three stimuli. (-)-Sulpiride (1 microM) prior to (+)-amphetamine (1 microM), resulted initially, in a further potentiation of overflow, followed by a time-dependent attenuation of dopamine overflow to all three stimuli. 6. t1/2, the rate of removal of [dopamine]ex following electrical stimulation was not significantly different in the aCPu and NAc for any of the stimulation conditions. After a 40 min superfusion with (+)-amphetamine (1 MicroM), t1/2 for ip, 4p/10 Hz and 20p/20 Hz was significantly increased in both the aCPuand NAc, the increase in t1/2 being significantly greater in the aCPu than in the NAc.7. In conclusion, this study indicates that the dopamine displacement and uptake inhibitory actions of(+ )-amphetamine result in complex and differential effects on electrically evoked dopamine overflow in the aCPu and NAc.

d-amphetamine and γ-butyrolactone alteration of dopamine synthesis in the terminals of nigrostriatal and mesolimbic neurons : Possible role of various autoreceptor sensitivities

Repeated administrations of methamphetamine (m-AMPH) produce high extracellular levels of dopamine (DA) and subsequent striatal DA terminal damage. Pharmacological blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors has been shown previously to prevent m-AMPH-induced striatal DA terminal injury, but the mechanism for this protection is unclear. In the present study, in vivo microdialysis was used to determine the effects of blockade of NMDA receptors with the noncompetitive antagonist MK-801 on m-AMPH-induced striatal DA overflow. Four injections of MK-801 (0.5 mg/kg, ip) alone did not significantly change extracellular striatal DA concentrations from pretreatment values. Four treatments with m-AMPH (4.0 mg/kg, sc at 2-hr intervals) increased striatal DA overflow, and the overflow was particularly extensive following the fourth injection. This m-AMPH regimen produced a 40% reduction in striatal DA tissue content 1 week later. Treatment with MK-801 15 min before each of the four m-AMPH injections or prior to only the last two m-AMPH administrations attenuated the m-AMPH-induced increase in striatal DA overflow and protected completely against striatal DA depletions. Other MK-801 treatment regimens less effectively reduced the m-AMPH-induced striatal DA efflux and were ineffective in protecting against striatal DA depletions. Linear regression analysis indicated that cumulative DA overflow was strongly predictive (r = -.68) of striatal DA tissue levels measured one week later. These findings suggest that the extensive DA overflow seen during a neurotoxic regimen of m-AMPH is a crucial component of the subsequent neurotoxicity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Nucleus accumbens dopamine release modulation by mesolimbic GABA A receptors—an in vivo electrochemical study