Small-molecule discovery from DNA-encoded chemical libraries.

DNA-encoded chemical libraries are collections of small molecules, attached to DNA fragments serving as identification barcodes, which can be screened against multiple protein targets, thus facilitating the drug discovery process. The preparation of large DNA-encoded chemical libraries crucially depends on the availability of robust synthetic methods, which enable the efficient conjugation to oligonucleotides of structurally diverse building blocks, sharing a common reactive group. Reactions of DNA derivatives with amines and/or carboxylic acids are particularly attractive for the synthesis of encoded libraries, in view of the very large number of building blocks that are commercially available. However, systematic studies on these reactions in the presence of DNA have not been reported so far. We first investigated conditions for the coupling of primary amines to oligonucleotides, using either a nucleophilic attack on chloroacetamide derivatives or a reductive amination on aldehyde-modified DNA. While both methods could be used for the production of secondary amines, the reductive amination approach was generally associated with higher yields and better purity. In a second endeavor, we optimized conditions for the coupling of a diverse set of 501 carboxylic acids to DNA derivatives, carrying primary and secondary amine functions. The coupling efficiency was generally higher for primary amines, compared to secondary amine substituents, but varied considerably depending on the structure of the acids and on the synthetic methods used. Optimal reaction conditions could be found for certain sets of compounds (with conversions >80%), but multiple reaction schemes are needed when assembling large libraries with highly diverse building blocks. The reactions and experimental conditions presented in this article should facilitate the synthesis of future DNA-encoded chemical libraries, while outlining the synthetic challenges that remain to be overcome.

DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DECLs) are collections of compounds, individually coupled to DNA tags serving as amplifiable identification barcodes. Since individual compounds can be identified by the associated DNA tag, they can be stored as a mixture, allowing the synthesis and screening of combinatorial libraries of unprecedented size, facilitated by the implementation of split-and-pool synthetic procedures or other experimental methodologies. In this review, we briefly present relevant concepts and technologies, which are required for the implementation and interpretation of screening procedures with DNA-encoded chemical libraries. Moreover, we illustrate some success stories, detailing how novel ligands were discovered from encoded libraries. Finally, we critically review what can realistically be achieved with the technology at the present time, highlighting challenges and opportunities for the future.

High-throughput sequencing for the identification of binding molecules from DNA-encoded chemical libraries

Design and synthesis of a novel DNA-encoded chemical library using Diels-Alder cycloadditions

Protein-ligand interactions lie at the heart of most biological and medical processes. To lay the groundwork for a mechanistic understanding of complex biological networks, a detailed description of the associated proteins, their roles, and their interaction partners is essential. Furthermore, a detailed description of protein-ligand interactions is of pharmaceutical interest, as small molecules targeting proteins constitute the basis for the treatment of numerous medical conditions. In this thesis, we used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to probe the conformational properties of biologically and pharmaceutically essential proteins, either alone or complexed with small molecules, to reveal the mechanistic grounds of these interactions. The first chapter entails the structural investigation of Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) by NMR spectroscopy. TNFα is a homotrimeric protein that enjoys tremendous scientific and pharmaceutical interest due to its pivotal role in the human immune response. However, its overexpression leads to numerous chronic inflammatory diseases. Studying the interaction between TNFα and small molecular inhibitors is thus of utmost importance if better cures for these diseases are to be found. Here, we investigated active and inhibited forms of TNFα in solution by NMR spectroscopy and showed that TNFα exhibits significant conformational exchange, especially in the receptor binding site and the trimer interface, which is crucial for its biological activity. Inhibition of TNFα by perturbing the trimer interface, either by mutagenesis or by targeting it with small molecules, does not lead to disruption of the postulated trimer in solution. Instead, it induces a significant increase in the conformational dynamics of TNFα propagating from the trimer interface to the receptor-binding site. Therefore, we propose that an allosteric dynamic coupling between the trimer interface and the active site mediates inhibition. This provides novel insights into the mechanisms of TNFα inhibition, which in turn may lead to the development of better-suited drug assays against this highly important molecule. The second chapter presents the study of alpha acid glycoprotein-1 (AGP1) by NMR. The heavily glycosylated AGP1 is one of the two most abundant human serum proteins and binds various metabolites as well as, perhaps most interestingly from a pharmaceutical perspective, many administered drugs. Understanding the interaction between AGP1 and small molecules on a molecular level in addition to revealing the yet unclear impact of the appended glycans in this process is thus of great importance - as drug binding to plasma proteins modulates their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. In this thesis, efficient protocols were developed which enabled us to shed light on the influence of glycosylation on the structure of AGP1 and to characterize its ligand binding at a level of detail which had not yet been achieved. We showed that glycosylation affects the protein conformation in the vicinity of the glycosylation site, and provide evidence for a conformational rearrangement upon binding of small molecules. By giving these novel insights, our results contribute to the functional understanding of AGP1 and more broadly to the relatively unexplored class of glycoproteins. The third chapter discusses the combination of our measured NMR data (presented in chapters one and two) with DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DECL) in drug discovery. DECL allows for the efficient identification of potential small molecule binders, while our concomitant NMR data provide the framework for assisting both the validation of ‘hits’ and the optimization process. We could confirm interactions between TNFα or AGP1 and binders identified by DECL. Here, the first application of this approach for drug discovery for TNFα and AGP1 is presented. In summary, our study contributes to a better understanding of two highly relevant proteins: AGP1 and TNFα. The data presented provides original insights into the inhibition mechanisms of small molecules and revealed the importance of conformational dynamics in these processes. Finally, our results will add a new aspect to the complex process of rational drug development, which will ultimately benefit many patients affected by diverse medical conditions.

DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DECLs) represent a promising tool in drug discovery. DECL technology allows the synthesis and screening of chemical libraries of unprecedented size at moderate costs. In analogy to phage-display technology, where large antibody libraries are displayed on the surface of filamentous phage and are genetically encoded in the phage genome, DECLs feature the display of individual small organic chemical moieties on DNA fragments serving as amplifiable identification barcodes. The DNA-tag facilitates the synthesis and allows the simultaneous screening of very large sets of compounds (up to billions of molecules), because the hit compounds can easily be identified and quantified by PCR-amplification of the DNA-barcode followed by high-throughput DNA sequencing. Several approaches have been used to generate DECLs, differing both in the methods used for library encoding and for the combinatorial assembly of chemical moieties. For example, DECLs can be used for fragment-based drug discovery, displaying a single molecule on DNA or two chemical moieties at the extremities of complementary DNA strands. DECLs can vary substantially in the chemical structures and the library size. While ultralarge libraries containing billions of compounds have been reported containing four or more sets of building blocks, also smaller libraries have been shown to be efficient for ligand discovery. In general, it has been found that the overall library size is a poor predictor for library performance and that the number and diversity of the building blocks are rather important indicators. Smaller libraries consisting of two to three sets of building blocks better fulfill the criteria of drug-likeness and often have higher quality. In this Account, we present advances in the DECL field from proof-of-principle studies to practical applications for drug discovery, both in industry and in academia. DECL technology can yield specific binders to a variety of target proteins and is likely to become a standard tool for pharmaceutical hit discovery, lead expansion, and Chemical Biology research. The introduction of new methodologies for library encoding and for compound synthesis in the presence of DNA is an exciting research field and will crucially contribute to the performance and the propagation of the technology.

The discovery of bioactive small molecules is currently dominated by iterative cycles of design, synthesis, purification and evaluation. In stark contrast, the emergence of natural products is structure-blind, and is driven by functional benefit to the host organism. Two function-driven approaches for the discovery of bioactive small molecules have recently emerged: synthetic fermentation and activity-directed synthesis. In both cases, arrays of reactions are performed, and the crude product mixtures are directly screened for biological function. The most promising reactions can inform the design of subsequent reaction arrays and, hence, optimisation of the synthesis of bioactive products. Finally, the products are purified, structurally elucidated and functionally characterised. Although in their infancy, function-driven approaches may improve the efficiency of molecular discovery, and increase the range of functional chemotypes that may be discovered.

Dynamic combinatorial chemistry (DCC) explores the thermodynamic equilibrium of reversible reactions. Its application in the discovery of protein binders is largely limited by difficulties in the analysis of complex reaction mixtures. DNA-encoded chemical library (DECL) technology allows the selection of binders from a mixture of up to billions of different compounds; however, experimental results often show low a signal-to-noise ratio and poor correlation between enrichment factor and binding affinity. Herein we describe the design and application of DNA-encoded dynamic combinatorial chemical libraries (EDCCLs). Our experiments have shown that the EDCCL approach can be used not only to convert monovalent binders into high-affinity bivalent binders, but also to cause remarkably enhanced enrichment of potent bivalent binders by driving their in situ synthesis. We also demonstrate the application of EDCCLs in DNA-templated chemical reactions.

DNA-encoded chemical libraries represent a novel avenue for the facile discovery of small molecule ligands against target proteins of biological or pharmaceutical importance. Library members consist of small molecules covalently attached to unique DNA fragments that serve as amplifiable identification barcodes. This encoding allows the in vitro selection of ligands at subpicomolar concentrations from large library populations by affinity capture on a target protein of interest, in analogy to established technologies for the selection of binding polypeptides (e.g., antibodies). Different library formats have been explored by various groups, allowing the construction of chemical libraries comprising up to millions of DNA-encoded compounds. Libraries before and after selection have been characterized by PCR amplification of the DNA codes and subsequent relative quantification of library members using high-throughput sequencing. The most enriched compounds have then been further analyzed in biological assays, in the presence or in the absence of linked DNA. This article reviews experimental strategies used for the construction of DNA-encoded chemical libraries, revealing how selection, decoding, and hit validation technologies have been used for drug discovery programs.

DNA-encoded chemical library (DEL) technology enables the efficient screening of large collections of encoded compounds and has emerged as a powerful tool for hit identification. De Novo design and synthesis of non-traditional encoded libraries such as a reversible covalent compound library and beyond Lipinski’s rule of five (bRo5) macrocyclic (MC) libraries have significantly expanded the chemical space available for DEL screening, and further enhances the feasibility of discovering highly selective ligands for challenging oncology targets. We will present examples of affinity-based ligand discovery targeting protein-protein interactions within the Bcl-2 family of proteins, specifically focusing on MCL1 and BFL1. We highlight the multiplexed DEL selection strategy employed and elucidate the molecular details around the uniqueness of the ligand interactions. Citation Format: Ying Zhang, Sana Bazzaz, Corey Bienstock, Paolo A. Centrella, Marie-Aude Guié, John P. Guilinger, Anthony D. Keefe, Matthew A. Clark. Discovery of highly selective ligands for the Bcl-2 family of proteins using DNA-encoded chemical libraries [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2025; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2025 Apr 25-30; Chicago, IL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2025;85(8_Suppl_1):Abstract nr 3163.

Selections and screenings of DNA-encoded chemical libraries against enzyme and cellular targets

Membrane proteins on the cell surface perform a myriad of biological functions; however, ligand discovery for membrane proteins is highly challenging, because a natural cellular environment is often necessary to maintain protein structure and function. DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DELs) have emerged as a powerful technology for ligand discovery, but they are mainly limited to purified proteins. Here we report a method that can specifically label membrane proteins with a DNA tag, and thereby enable target-specific DEL selections against endogenous membrane proteins on live cells without overexpression or any other genetic manipulation. We demonstrate the generality and performance of this method by screening a 30.42-million-compound DEL against the folate receptor, carbonic anhydrase 12 and the epidermal growth factor receptor on live cells, and identify and validate a series of novel ligands for these targets. Given the high therapeutic significance of membrane proteins and their intractability to traditional high-throughput screening approaches, this method has the potential to facilitate membrane-protein-based drug discovery by harnessing the power of DEL.

DNA-encoded library technology (ELT) has emerged in the pharmaceutical industry as a powerful tool for hit and lead generation. Over the last 10 years, a number of DNA-compatible chemical reactions have been published and used to synthesize libraries. Among the most commonly used reactions in medicinal chemistry is the C-N bond formation, and its application to DNA-encoded library technology affords an alternative approach to identify high-affinity binders for biologically relevant protein targets. Herein we report a newly developed Pd-promoted C-N cross coupling reaction between DNA-conjugated aryl bromides and a wide scope of arylamines in good to excellent yields. The mild reaction conditions should facilitate the synthesis of novel DNA-encoded combinatorial libraries.

The discovery of potent ligands highly specific to accessible cancer-associated antigens is essential for the development of small molecule therapeutics with broad therapeutic index. DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DELs) can be used to discover novel binders and to improve binding affinity of existing small organic ligands by affinity maturation procedures. OncoFAP is a 680 pM inhibitor of the stromal pan-tumoral antigen Fibroblast Activation Protein (FAP). OncoFAP displays best-in-class tumor targeting performance in patients, although its relatively short half-life limits the applicability as radioligand therapeutic against solid malignancies. We designed three focused affinity maturation DELs, containing 50,730 compounds bearing two sets of building blocks coupled to a propargylglycine central scaffold. Library selections against FAP from multiple species enabled the discovery of novel FAP inhibitors with potencies in the low picomolar range. 177Lu-DOTAGA conjugates of the most potent novel ligands (named “OncoFAP-11” and “BiOncoFAP-11”) localized to tumors implanted in mice, with excellent tumor-to-blood and tumor-to-kidney ratios at late time-points after systemic administration. The high affinity FAP ligands described here enable the efficient delivery of therapeutic radionuclides to tumors with long residence time and with low uptake in normal tissues. The results presented here show that DEL-based affinity maturation procedures can lead to the improvement of the targeting performance of FAP binders, without compromising their tumor selectivity. Citation Format: Sara Puglioli, Luca Prati, Sebastian Oehler, Andrea Galbiati, Dario Neri, Samuele Cazzamalli, Gabriele Bassi, Nicholas Favalli. DNA-encoded affinity maturation libraries enable the discovery of low picomolar fibroblast activation protein inhibitors suitable for radioligand therapy of solid tumors [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2023; Part 1 (Regular and Invited Abstracts); 2023 Apr 14-19; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2023;83(7_Suppl):Abstract nr 1989.

Integrating DNA-encoded chemical libraries with virtual combinatorial library screening: Optimizing a PARP10 inhibitor