Smart Contract Invocation Protocol (SCIP): A Protocol for the Uniform Integration of Heterogeneous Blockchain Smart Contracts

PurposeCross border trade, involving different business environments between the sellers’ and buyers’ countries, may result in conflicts because of asymmetry in the information structure across the borders. The International Chambers of Commerce (ICC) has laid down ground rules on terms of shipment and payment, enabling harmonization and standardization of business process, and fixing of responsibilities for international trade. The international commercial (INCO) terms by ICC define the duties, obligations and cost borne by the exporter and the importer. An exporter’s uncertainty looms once the goods cross his/her border. Therefore, there is a need for a smart contract that is secured, transparent, legitimate and trustworthy. The authors propose a blockchain technology-based smart global contract (BTGC) framework for international trade.Design/methodology/approachIn this paper, the authors develop the framework based on value chain analysis (VCA) of international trade and an ontology-driven-blockchain-design approach. The paper analyzes the sequence of activities in the value chain of global trade, the terms of the contract, the data structure templates, the validation rules and the points-of-failure, and proposes the smart contract blockchain structure.FindingsThis paper proposes the BTGC framework considering the INCO terms 2020; it provides the validation rules and the probability of failures; and identifies the elements that cause the halting of contracts and conditions of creation of side blockchains. The framework also includes the governance of the BTGC system.Research limitations/implicationsThe proposed framework not only has implications at the firm level as it automates and secures a global sale contract but also is expected to harmonize the global-trade process as well. The developers may use the attributes, data structure templates and the rules identified in this paper for developing the GC software. Future research may consider using case analysis, class diagrams and the related steps for developing the blockchain software.Originality/valueThis paper proposes a complete value chain of global contract (GC) concerning exports, an ontology of GC and a blockchain-based smart-contract framework based on global standards. Besides, it specifies the elements of fraud (such as the non-integration of side chains) and uncertainty, i.e. the probability of failures. Such a framework will harmonize the global-trade process and build an international standards for smart GC based on blockchain technology (ISSGCBT), which is not yet done.

In collaborative environments, where enterprises interact each other’s without a centralised authority that ensures trust among them, the ability of providing cross-organisational services must be enabled also between mutually untrusting participants. Blockchain platforms and smart contracts have been proposed to implement collaborative processes. However, current solutions are platform-dependent and deploy on-chain the whole process, thus increasing the execution costs of smart contracts if deployed on permissionless blockchain. In this paper, we propose an approach that includes criteria to identify trust-demanding objects and activities in collaborative processes, a model to describe smart contracts in a platform-independent way and guidelines to deploy them in a blockchain. To this aim, a three-layered model is used to describe: (i) the collaborative process, represented in BPMN, where the business expert is supported to add annotations that identify trust-demanding objects and activities; (ii) Abstract Smart Contracts based on trust-demanding objects and activities only and specified by means of descriptors, that are independent from any blockchain technology; (iii) Concrete Smart Contracts, that implement abstract ones and are deployed over a specific blockchain, enabling the creation of a repository where a single descriptor is associated with multiple implementations. The flexibility and reduced costs of the approach, due to the smart contracts abstraction and the use of blockchain only when necessary, are discussed with a case study on remote monitoring services in the digital factory.

The world today has realized the vast technological evolution that has greatly shaped the production and management functions of business enterprises. Traditional contracts can take weeks or even months to initiate, and there have been numerous instances of breaches and lack of trust for contracts in both the private and public sector. A smart contract can be defined as a self-executing contract that utilizes blockchain technology to digitally enforce, verify, or facilitate the performance or negotiation of a contract. Owing to the security and decentralized system exhibited by blockchain technology, smart contracts can foster transaction credibility between contracting parties without the necessity of third parties as exhibited in traditional contracts. Any business organization that aims at achieving greater heights in management and production dimensions must consider utilizing robust technologies that are aimed at bolstering its competitive edge. Owing to the newness of smart contracts, characterized by very few studies on the same, this research reviews how smart contracts through blockchain technology can be implemented in an organization to enhance performance and outlines the applications, benefits, and limitations associated with such contracts. Keywords: Blockchain technology; smart contracts; smart contract applications; smart contract benefits; smart contract implementation; cryptography; cryptocurrency DOI : 10.7176/JIEA/9-5-07 Publication date :September 30 th 2019

Smart contracts are deployed and represented as bytecodes in blockchain networks, and these bytecodes are machine-readable codes. Only a small number of deployed smart contracts have their verified human-readable code publicly accessible to blockchain users. To improve the understandability of deployed smart contracts, we explored rule-based classification of smart contracts using iterative integration of fingerprints of relevant function interfaces and keywords. Our classification system included categories for standard contracts such as ERC20, ERC721, and ERC1155, and non-standard contracts like FinDApps, cross-chain, governance, and proxy. To do this, we first identified the core function fingerprints for all ERC token contracts. We then used an adapted header extractor tool to verify that these fingerprints occurred in all of the implemented functions within the bytecode. For the non-standard contracts, we took an iterative approach, identifying contract interfaces and relevant fingerprints for each specific category. To classify these contracts, we created a rule that required at least two occurrences of a relevant fingerprint keyword or interface. This rule was stricter for standard contracts: the 100% occurrence requirement ensures that we only identify compliant token contracts. For non-standard contracts, we required a minimum of two relevant fingerprint occurrences to prevent hash collisions and the unintentional use of keywords. After developing the classifier, we evaluated its performance on sample datasets. The classifier performed very well, achieving an F1 score of over 99% for standard contracts and a solid 93% for non-standard contracts. We also conducted a risk analysis to identify potential vulnerabilities that could reduce the classifier’s performance, including hash collisions, an incomplete rule set, manual verification bottlenecks, outdated data, and semantic misdirection or obfuscation of smart contract functions. To address these risks, we proposed several solutions: continuous monitoring, continuous data crawling, and extended rule refinement. The classifier’s modular design allows for these manual updates to be easily integrated. While semantic-based risks cannot be completely eliminated, symbolic execution can be used to verify the expected behavior of ERC token contract functions with a given set of inputs to identify malicious contracts. Lastly, we applied the classifier on contracts deployed Ethereum main network.

Port supply chains play a very important role in the process of economic globalization. Lack of trust of the mechanism is the main factor in restricting the development of port supply chains. Blockchains have great potential to solve the trust problem among all participants using port supply chains, which can reduce costs and improve efficiency. As the bridge between blockchains and port supply chains, smart contracts reconstruct the business process of blockchain-empowered port supply chains. In this article, we present an architecture of a consortium blockchain-empowered port supply chain system, and propose a system verification framework for the smart contracts of port supply chains with probabilistic behaviors. The smart contracts are modeled as DTMCs (Discrete-Time Markov Chains), which are automatically transformed through the BPMN (Business Process Model and Notation) description of the smart contracts. The requirements are specified by PCTL (Probabilistic Computation Tree Logic). Moreover, we implement the customs clearance process of the Shanghai Yangshan Port based on blockchain Hyperledger Fabric, and reconstruct the clearance process with smart contracts. We use it to demonstrate the effectiveness of this framework, and identify the smart contracts that do not meet the expected needs of users.

A smart contract is a business process agreed upon to run. With a smart contract, all business processes can run automatically after the smart contract receives a trigger and cannot be canceled or changed. Previous research on smart boxes is generally only used for health storage of smart drugs. In this study, facilitated off-chain blockchain model MSCWR SmartBox will focus on shipping for logistics, such as for the use of shipping goods such as valuables. This research focuses on creating an off-chain blockchain smart contract model that is written in pseudocode to support the operations of the MSCWR SmartBox. The creation of off-chain blockchain smart contracts is very important in supporting the MSCWR business process. Making off-chain blockchain Smart Contracts is very important considering the business processes that create follow the Multichain process (Blockchain applications for cryptocurrencies without changing the multichain application). The research method used is user-centered design (UCD). In this study, we use an application prototype approach, use multichain as a blockchain platform and use the environment at BeeBlock Laboratories. The validation and testing of the equipment used with proof of logs from the server show that the smart contract created can be used to support the business processes of the MSCWR SmartBox.

Blockchain Systems provide highly welcome properties such as immutability, observability, availability, and distribution for implementing smart contracts without the need for intermediaries. While the smart contract goals of observability and enforceability can easily be achieved on blockchains, the goal of privity is much harder to tackle. In the context of smart contracts on blockchains, privity aims in limiting the spread of knowledge to the participants with a contractual need-to-know. However, limiting access to data can limit the possible degrees of proactive enforcement of correct decisions and it can negatively impact their availability. Therefore, it can be required to find a proper balance between privity and enforceability or availability requirements. Designers may be forced to include additional participants (confidants) in the decision process only for the sake of enforceability or availability.In this paper, we introduce measures for assessing the impact of confidants for decisions within smart contracts on privacy. We model smart contracts in form of inter-organizational business processes and provide modeling constructs for privity requirements and the inclusion of confidants.KeywordsSmart contractsBlockchainConfidentialityPrivacyPrivityEnforceabilityDistributed oraclesMeasure

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), an emerging architecture that embodies flying ad-hoc networks, face critical privacy and security challenges, mainly when engaged in data-sensitive missions. Therefore, message authentication is a crucial security feature for drone communication. This paper presents a Blockchain-based Efficient, and Trusted Authentication scheme for UAV communication BETA-UAV, which exploits the inherent properties of blockchain technology concerning memorability and immutable to record communication sessions via transaction using a smart contract. The smart contract in BETA-UAV allows participants to publish and call transactions from the blockchain network. Furthermore, the transaction addresses are proof of freshness and trustworthiness for subsequent transmissions. Furthermore, we investigate the ability to resist active attacks, e.g., impersonation, replaying, and modification. In addition, we evaluate the gas costs associated with the smart contract's functions by implementing BETA-UAV on the Ethereum public blockchain. Comparing computation and communication over-heads shows that the proposed approach can save significant costs over traditional techniques.

The integration of smart contracts within blockchain technology represents atransformative approach to intellectual property rights (IPR) management, fundamentally altering traditional copyright enforcement mechanisms. This article demonstrates how distributed computer networks combined with automated regulatory devices provide superior alternatives to conventional IPR handling methods. Smart contracts reduce the need for arbitration through automated execution of predetermined terms and coding protocols. The implementation of blockchain-based smart contract systems enhances proprietary rights management, which can be particularly relevant for the BRICS nations currently facing evolving digital governance challenges. Research indicates that automated proprietary system networks are progressively superseding traditional IPR management approaches. The development of automated governance systems, coupled with decentralized IPR frameworks, presents both opportunities and regulatory challenges for the BRICS countries. Embedded payment mechanisms within smart contracts ensure automatic royalty distribution when copyrighted content is accessed, eliminating manual processing burdens and associated costs for creators. The implementation of smart contracts also enhances agreement integrity and reduces plagiarism risks through the use of immutable blockchain records. This study examines how organizations can establish enhanced trustworthiness and optimize digital business processes through blockchain-based copyright management. Advanced analytical tools accelerate the understanding of both the benefits and limitations within current copyright frameworks. Users are able to seamlessly access blockchain systems, creating multiple account types as required. Every blockchain entry provides transparent records of content usage and account activities. The digital system prevents misrepresentation by maintaining visible platform activities that are accessible to all stakeholders, ensuring comprehensive transparency of development and execution history for all agreement participants.

The unprecedented growth of digital art in the contemporary creative economy has empowered artists to reach global audiences, yet it has simultaneously amplified threats of copyright infringement, piracy, and unauthorized duplication. Traditional intellectual property frameworks, while legally robust, are often ill-suited to address the speed, borderless nature, and technological complexity of digital content circulation. Blockchain technology emerges as a transformative paradigm, introducing decentralized and tamper-proof mechanisms for digital rights management. Through non-fungible tokens (NFTs), smart contracts, and immutable ledgers, blockchain provides verifiable proof of authorship, facilitates transparent provenance tracking, and automates royalty distribution without reliance on intermediaries. This manuscript critically examines the role of blockchain in strengthening copyright protection for digital artists by combining an extensive review of existing literature with statistical survey data drawn from practicing artists across multiple regions. Findings reveal that while blockchain adoption is gaining momentum, barriers such as regulatory uncertainty, high transaction costs, energy inefficiency, and limited user literacy constrain large-scale implementation. The study demonstrates that blockchain can enhance creative autonomy, ensure fair economic participation, and foster trust in digital art ecosystems, but its success depends on legal integration, sustainable infrastructure, and artist-centered governance. This research contributes to the discourse by offering a multi-layered framework for blockchain-enabled copyright systems, bridging technological innovation with socio-legal realities, and outlining directions for future policy and research in intellectual property protection.

Blockchain technology is being successfully applied in the cultural sector to enable the lawful distribution of works. This paper studies copyright related issues regarding the two basic characteristics of the specific technology: its nature as a ledger where information related to ownership is registered and the fact that it provides smart contracts functionality. We are addressing questions related to the legitimacy of the existence of a registry (ledger) and the significance of smart contracts for copyright law.

The purpose of this paper is to propose an approach to blockchain-enabled supply-chain model for a smart crop production framework. The defined tasks are: (1) analysis of blockchain ecosystem as a network of stakeholders and as an infrastructure of technical and logical elements; (2) definition of a supply-chain model; (3) design of blockchain reference infrastructure; (4) description of blockchain information channels with smart contracts basic functionalities. The results presented include: а supply-chain model facilitating seeds certification process, monitoring and supervision of the grain process, provenance and as optional interactions with regulatory bodies, logistics and financial services; the three level blockchain reference infrastructure and a blockchain-enabled supply-chain supporting five information channels with nine participants and smart contracts. An account management user application tool, the general descriptions of smart contract basic functionalities and a selected parts of one smart contract code are provided as examples.

With the issuance of Bitcoin, blockchain technology has become more and more popular, and more and more well-known cryptocurrencies have been born. However the blockchain technology does not stop there, it can also be regarded as a very secure database. And Ethereum is a big pusher to promote the development of blockchain. It has developed the smart contract, which allows users to conduct secure transactions without a third party and avoid mutual mistrust between the two parties. With the development of blockchain, it is now possible to connect to the outside world through the API provided by the web service, which is called an Oracle. When a smart contract calls function, external data can be returned to the smart contract through the API. Such as obtaining the temperature of a certain country or obtaining the exchange rate of the current cryptocurrency. Now, oracle is mainly divided into two ways, through decentralization and centralization return data to the contract. However, the former method used by the oracle has little credibility for data collection, the latter is relatively slow in obtaining data return. This manuscript will update and optimize these parts, and hope to achieve a balance between the two. Finally, hope that more DAPP (decentralized applications) of the blockchain will be generated and the technology will be implemented. Chemical applications are more reliable.

Implementing blockchain benefits various construction management processes, such as securing payments, enabling traceable design process, and enhancing information transparency in supply chain. However, blockchain implementation in construction is still in its infancy due to weak functionality of smart contracts, which are self-enforceable programs allowing iteration between external data and blockchain. In the context of construction management that embraces complex and dynamic business processes, smart contracts are currently designed based on specific and isolated functional requirements without considering the connection and execution logic between these functions. It leads to inefficient collaboration and even execution errors, thereby corrupting data quality and even causing business failure. Therefore, this paper proposes a Blockchain-BPMN (Business Process Model and Notation) integrated (BBI) framework for construction management. The framework poses two contributions. First, a BPMN-driven method is developed to design smart contracts supporting executing linked and logically connected business activities. Second, an access control strategy is integrated into smart contracts to safeguard the accessibility of sensitive business data in a blockchain environment. The BBI framework is validated in an actual BIM design collaboration scenario, and results show its feasibility and computational performance are acceptable. Several aspects for improvement and future directions are discussed in the end

This work focuses on the integration of blockchain for enhancing the security, privacy, and trust management within Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs). In the context of smart transportation, VANETs offer essential safety but the open and dynamic nature of these networks makes secure, anonymous authentication a major challenge. Blockchain's decentralized nature can provide a secure, tamper-resistant ledger for managing data across the network nodes, helping address these security concerns. Cross-chain bridges enable the transfer of data, money and assets across blockchains. It has thus become important to enhance existing authentication mechanisms in blockchain bridges. In this research, we analyze existing authentication approaches, highlighting their limitations, such as reliance on centralized entities, private key leaks and weakness in smart contract functions. We then propose a novel approach to strengthen existing authentication mechanisms with the combined capabilities of Smart Contracts and Polynomial Interpolation, to establish a secure authentication layer.