Social enterprises

In this paper, we analyse the emergence and development of social enterprise in South Korea. Our purpose is to show how different broad, consensual and successive conceptions of social enterprise—the so-called meta-models—have generated a dynamic and complex environment which includes a variety of models of social enterprise. Based on multiple data sources, including interviews, documents, statistics and field research, we illustrate the diversity of Korean social enterprise models by using the EMES ideal-type as a conceptual framework that leads us to analyse the social, economic and governance dimensions of each type of social enterprise. This research suggests that the social enterprise phenomenon should not be limited to its expressed contents or to an excessively strict legal or economic definition. It eventually contributes to advancing our understanding on social enterprise by showing that the definitions and concepts of social enterprise can be diverse across different social, economic and political contexts. For this reason, building a universal typology that can embrace social enterprises in different national contexts is by far a challenging task.

This research is motivated by socio-economic imbalance that cannot be handled properly by the government so that the presence of social enterprise is needed in the midst of society. Evaluation and sustainable development in social enterprise is necessary to maintain its existence, by measuring the social impact that results from the social mission business. The concept of social enterprise itself is generally neutral without being based on religious values. The emergence of the concept of Islamic social enterprise is a novelty. This study uses a qualitative descriptive method that aims to describe the actual conditions of the application of the Islamic social enterprise concept in a company and measure their social impact. With injection of Islamic social enterprise in the process of measurement, this research has added value than others. The subject is Catenzo shoe company located in Cibaduyut, Bandung City. Catenzo has a significant role in empowering local shoe craftsmen in that area. The population is Catenzo partner shoe craftsmen as the main recipient of the impact of empowerment, amounting to 121 people with 25 people as sample. The Social Return on Investment (SROI) method is a measuring tool used in this study. The SROI ratio calculation results show that the Catenzo shoe company succeeded in creating a social impact or benefit for the partner shoe craftsmen.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that it is feasible to theoretically and empirically build an international typology of social enterprise (SE) models. The authors first rely on their previous work (Defourny and Nyssens, 2017), suggesting that the concept of “interest principles” can serve as a cornerstone in such perspective. This concept, when combined with that of SEs’ “resource mixes”, allows to design an analytical tool that shows from which “matrices” and through which “trajectories” several distinct SE models can emerge, namely, the “non-profit entrepreneurial model”, the “social cooperative model”, the “social business model” and the “public sector model”.Design/methodology/approachThis paper combines deductive and inductive approaches. In a deductive perspective, the authors build upon the analytical framework proposed by Gui (1991) to identify capital interest, mutual interest and general interest as key driving forces and fundamental motives in the overall economy. To confront their theoretical construction and their tentative typology of SE models with field realities, the authors also adopt an inductive approach, relying on bottom-up research strategies developed in the seven “ICSEM country contributions” forming this special issue.FindingsAt first view, mapping exercises of SE categories in the seven countries seem to highlight a high degree of heterogeneity. However, a closer analysis of these apparently diverging contributions clearly suggests that the four major SE models derived from the authors’ theoretical framework find significant empirical support in most—if not all—countries.Originality/valueAlthough major statistical work to test the authors’ typology of SE models remains to be carried out, mainly through the exploitation of the international ICSEM database (which covers over 700 SEs from more than 40 countries), this paper represents a first—although limited—attempt to collect empirical evidence for testing this typology.

PurposeTwelve years ago, the concept of social enterprise was rarely discussed in Europe, however it is now making significant breakthroughs in European Union (EU) countries. Within this context, the purpose of this paper is to synthesize major evolutions experienced by social enterprises across Europe and the key challenges they are facing; and specific members of the EMES European Research Network provide a more in‐depth update as to current trends and debates in their respective countriesDesign/methodology/approachThis paper is based on a comparative analysis of the different institutions (legal frameworks, public policies, supporting structures, public procurement policies …) which support the development of social enterprises in the different EU countries. To delimit the field, the paper relies on the “ideal‐type” social enterprise as defined by the EMES network: “Social enterprises are not‐for‐profit private organizations providing goods or services directly related to their explicit aim to benefit the community. They rely on a collective dynamics involving various types of stakeholders in their governing bodies, they place a high value on their autonomy and they bear economic risks linked to their activity”.FindingsIt was found that although the concept of social enterprise itself has not gained the same recognition in all EU countries (and is even still poorly understood in several of them), the reality is that growth and social enterprise are being experienced in most EU countries.Originality/valueIf the concept of social enterprise is on the public agenda of several EU countries, the understanding as well as the institutions to support their development vary from one country to the other. This paper provides a comparative analysis of this heterogeneous but rich landscape.

This article engages in a systematic narrative review, executed according to RAMESES (Realist and Meta‐Narrative Evidence Synthesis) standards, to unpack the literature on social enterprise. The case of Sport for Social Change and Development (S4SC) is presented as a global field of organizations facing early engagement with the concept of social enterprise as an innovative solution to increasing pressure in the NGO landscape. Yet, social enterprise is a complex term, which requires a solid theoretical approach before gaining currency as an operational term in the S4SC field. As researchers, we need to first and foremost consider how our research in this area supports organizations. Due to this, the way we theorize a concept before operationalizing the concept needs to appreciate the lived reality of these organizations and the efficiencies they aim to gain to benefit their social mission. The RAMESES narrative review is engaged to consider the different angles of thought regarding social enterprise. Findings articulate three prominent methods to conceptualize social enterprise and query how these methods can be used to support the development and growth of the social enterprise model in the S4SC field. Concluding remarks suggest that research on social enterprise in S4SC needs to better understand the purpose of this concept in the field to mitigate any risk of a priori assumptions being imposed on these organizations.

Social Entrepreneurship and COVID‐19

The Economic and Social Council of the Republic of Bulgaria (ESC) believes that social enterprises in Bulgaria are still an untapped business model. Current social enterprises are mainly non-governmental organizations by applying the relevant legislation creating social enterprises whose business is focused on the realization of the social purpose and mission of the organization. Social enterprises in Bulgaria operate in various sectors, the most serious part are in: the delivery of social services; providing jobs for people with disabilities; mediation in finding employment of unemployed persons; provision of health services; аctivities in the field of education and others.In realizing these activities the leading is not the end product but the achieved social effect on individuals themselves expressed in obtaining the necessary support to integrate into society. In this sense, there are three basic models of social enterprises:The most common model is the one that creates jobs and develops the workforce. By business jobs are created primarily for people with disabilities. Most often the social enterprise is the employer of people with disabilities in order to achieve the integration of persons with disabilities in the labor market and create conditions for a better life.Another popular model of a social enterprise is the one in which the enterprise produces goods and seeks markets, also engaging with their distribution. Most often social enterprises involve persons with disabilities in the form of occupational therapy involved in the production of certain goods. Existing social enterprises in Bulgaria within this model are engaged in the manufacture of certain products by persons who are unemployed or socially excluded. The aim is to enable them to work and improve their social inclusion.The third existing model in Bulgaria is related to the provision of social services generally through payment of external customers, while social enterprise provides social services to its members. Payment is under contract with the state or a municipality. Within this model, services are provided to different users paid directly to social enterprise for direct service.

Impact investing and social entrepreneurship have garnered increasing traction in Southeast Asia as means to drive inclusive growth aligned with Sustainable Development Goals. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated inequalities and vulnerabilities across marginalized communities, creating pressing needs for market-based innovations catering to those left behind. This study undertakes an exploratory study to assess how the recovery trajectory is reshaping impact capital and social enterprise ecosystems to promote resilient, equitable development post-pandemic. Using a qualitative methodology, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 impact investors and social entrepreneurs operating across Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore. Interview transcripts were coded through descriptive thematic analysis approach to map changing investor priorities, pivot in social enterprise models along with persistent and emerging barriers. Key trends identified include deepening digital divide driving focus on edtech and telemedicine enterprises, rising hunger and income precarity accelerating food security and livelihood-linked innovations. However, concerns remain around measuring real-world impact, human capital gaps and policy constraints regarding foreign investment and public procurement. The analysis informs recommendations including outcome-based blended finance vehicles, promotion of sustainable agriculture value chains, and streamlining cross-border investment flows for the ecosystem to drive recovery aligned with ASEAN sustainable development commitments.

4 Concepts and realities of social enterprise: a European perspective Jacques Defourny INTRODUCTION Although rarely used until the mid-1990s, the concepts of 'social enterprise', 'social entrepreneurship' and 'social entrepreneur' are now increasi...

PurposeThis paper aims to analyse the advancement of social enterprises in Indonesia by providing comprehensive insights into crucial aspects of social enterprises such as stakeholder interests, business models, challenges and future objectives.Design/methodology/approachUsing a case study approach, the study investigates four social enterprises using a narrative methodology to gain a detailed understanding of their operations. By adopting a systems perspective, the research uncovers the dynamics among stakeholders, challenges and the evolution of business models, offering a nuanced view of the social enterprise ecosystem.FindingsThe findings demonstrate that social enterprises in Indonesia emerge with a noble mission to address unmet community needs. Notably, effective collaboration among diverse stakeholders, including both the private and public sectors, plays a crucial role in achieving the missions of these social enterprises. The study highlights the significance of social enterprises in bridging gaps left by the government and contributing to positive societal impact.Originality/valueBy deepening the understanding of social enterprise development in Indonesia, this research provides valuable insights for policymakers, practitioners and researchers in fostering their growth and effectiveness. Ultimately, it contributes to the broader knowledge on social entrepreneurship and sustainable development.

As active members of Middle East and North Africa’s (MENA) emerging social enterprise community, our beliefs regarding the potential of social enterprise in the MENA region are optimistic based on empirical observation of the convergence of different stakeholder efforts (such as strategic philanthropy, corporate social responsibility (CSR), public–private partnerships) towards social enterprise models. Not only do we believe social enterprise is necessary to create sustainable social impact (in particular where philanthropy or economic development has failed to do so), but we also appreciate its business potential and its resilience to market volatility. Nonetheless, through our work at C3 — Consult and Coach for a Cause1 — we have experienced, first hand, some of the challenges that social entrepreneurs encounter when launching and growing their organizations.

This article is a review of the academic productions about Social Enterprise (SE) through bibliometric indicators, such as most cited articles and authors, number of publications, institutions, countries, and keywords, to shed light on the concept of SE and find new research lines. The 50 most cited articles were structured into 4 categories: I) entrepreneurship, II) innovation, III) organization, and IV) impact measurement. Objective: The bibliometric review aims to clarify the concept of SE in the literature through a variety of definitions, and to find new lines of research on the concept. Methodology: The database of 3,113 publications between 2013-2023 was retrieved from Web of Science (WoS) and analyzed with the software VOSviewer. Results: The analysis identified four research lines of SE, which allow the observation of the multidimensionality of the SE concept and that point to new research lines. Limitations: Given its importance in the scholar world, Web of Science is the main source of information in this paper, besides Google Scholar. Further and in greater depth analysis of the SE concept is required using other databases such as Scopus. The same applies to the results of clustering. Practical implications: The findings can reveal some useful knowledge and skills that universities and business schools, as innovation drivers, should transfer to social entrepreneurs as leaders of an SE. Keywords: conceptualization; bibliometric analysis; social enterprise; citation analysis; content analysis

Summary The development sector is constantly looking for new models to address the many challenges of the Global South in a sustainable way. The aim of this study is to investigate how the agrarian communities in rural Burundi accommodate the model of a social enterprise: a market-based community organization with a social mission. We conduct an explorative study of a pilot development intervention in rural Burundi. Nine participating village solidarity groups (child protection committees) have been equipped with energy generators. By selling energy, the groups become self-sustainable economic structures. The profits of the micro-enterprises support the villages’ orphans’ funds, used to equip the orphan children with uniforms and school supplies. Accordingly, the intervention assumes deep participation (project ownership) on the part of the community and also holds the promise of future economic sustainability (earned income). Using a mixed-method approach, we examine the perceptions, behaviors, and actions of the participating community members. Drawing on the theory of moral economy, we argue that subsistence communities in Burundi are governed by reciprocal and hierarchical relationships that may both enable and hinder social enterprise initiatives. Our results suggest that the social enterprise model may increase the sustainability prospects of the interventions but question its capacity to achieve transformational change.

This chapter reviews the context in which social enterprises operate in Finland. It then provides an overview of the institutionalised and non-institutionalised forms of social enterprise in the country. It also presents the new typology of social enterprise in Finland, as well as four emblematic examples illustrating the different types of social enterprise. The chapter discusses social-value creation in different aspects of social enterprises' activity, before analysing typology in relation to the findings generated by the International Comparative Social Enterprise Models project. The role of social-economy organisations changed when the welfare state emerged, developed and matured, in the period that extended from the 1940s to the 1980s. Institutionalised social enterprises include work-integration social enterprises and organisations that have been awarded the "Social Enterprise Mark" label. The ICSEM Project has put forward a typology including four major models of social enterprise, namely the entrepreneurial non-profit (ENP), the social-cooperative (SC), the social business (SB) and the public-sector social enterprise (PSE) models.

PurposeSocial enterprises are not purely commercial and philanthropic. They represent a hybrid form of organizations that involve taking business‐like, innovative approaches to deliver public services. Very little research has investigated the role of intellectual capital (IC) in innovation processes in social enterprises. This paper aims to address this.Design/methodology/approachThis paper uses a critical analysis of current literature in relation to the IC concept within the social enterprise context.FindingsThe paper argues that the IC concept can be utilized as a strategic management framework that assists social enterprises to harness knowledge for the pursuit of innovative social and commercial activities.Research limitations/implicationsThe paper contributes to the literature by theoretically arguing that IC can be utilized in innovation processes in social enterprises. It also informs social entrepreneurs that the IC concept is a valid strategic management framework that assists facilitating innovation in social enterprises. An IC conceptual framework is proposed using theoretical arguments from the literature. The framework helps social entrepreneurs to visualize IC and its components in their organizations for the development of effective innovation‐based strategies in social enterprises. The increased awareness of the IC concept in social enterprises, as a result of this paper, is likely to generate further research from both non‐profit practitioners and scholars.Originality/valueThe paper is considered as a starting‐point and serves as a milestone in examining the role of IC in innovation processes in social enterprises.