Space Traffic Management (STM) – Legal Aspects

Chapter 24 - Regulations for future space traffic control and management

Space is becoming increasingly congested as the number of on-orbit satellites and debris objects continues to grow. Space traffic management (STM) is critical for ensuring that the expanding orbital population operates safely and efficiently, avoiding collisions and radio-frequency interference while still facilitating widespread space operations. Recent events such as the FCC approval of SpaceX’s ~12,000 satellite constellation, the signing of Space Policy Directive 3 (which moves Space Situational Awareness responsibilities away from the Department of Defense and to a civil agency), and the growth in rideshare and small launch vehicles illustrate the rapidly changing nature of this domain. This paper will describe the concept of operations (ConOps) for a civilian STM research initiative, which has been developed from previous NASA work to enable safe operation of small unmanned aircraft systems. The STM ConOps proposes an architecture to enable efficient data sharing and coordination between participants to facilitate safe spaceflight operations. It is designed to utilize and promote the emerging field of commercial STM services, as a complement to existing government-provided STM services. The concept envisions a phased evolution that would gradually integrate additional capabilities, proposing a first phase architecture and tentative plans for a broader system. Work towards developing an STM research and prototyping platform is also discussed.

This paper builds on top of a collaborative ATFM framework previously published, which demonstrated a potential in significant pre-tactical system delay reduction over the current European ATFM practices. In this paper, we aim to raise the technology readiness level (TRL) of the original works, focusing on improving the tractability of its DCB optimizer. To this end, we apply a Dantzig-Wolfe (DW) decomposition approach and use high performance computing (HPC) techniques to attempt the solution in a short time. The main contribution of this paper is to mitigate the computational burden faced by previous approaches, which will make all the contributions demonstrated therein more operationally feasible.

This paper analyses the effectiveness of the international legal framework in mitigating the combined risks of orbital collision and cyber interference, and assesses how a global Space Traffic Management (STM) regime could enhance stability and security in outer space. Using Yin’s single-case study design, the global space governance regime is examined through Bowen’s qualitative document analysis of treaties, policies, and twelve scholarly studies, interpreted via Dunn’s public-policy analysis framework. The findings show that existing instruments establish broad norms of responsibility and liability but lack operational authority, cyber-resilient procedures, and enforceable “rules of the road.” Fragmented institutions and divergent national strategies perpetuate legal ambiguity and impede coordinated manoeuvre decisions. Cyber dependencies in orbital systems further magnify risks of misinterpretation and escalation. The study argues that an integrated STM regime—combining binding collision-avoidance authority, mandatory cyber-security standards, and interoperable data architectures—would materially reduce uncertainty and strengthen collective security. Policy recommendations include establishing a supranational coordination centre, codifying minimum separation and priority rules, and linking participation to verifiable cyber compliance. The proposed framework operationalises due regard through authority, assurance, and accountability, transforming space governance from permissive norms to enforceable safety mechanisms. By fusing legal, institutional, and technological dimensions, the research provides a practical pathway toward a secure and predictable orbital environment.

This paper examines the legal basis and framework for the United Nations registration process for space objects. UN registration processes are compared against and contrasted with national and regional registration processes to highlight potential adjustments in light of the need for a space traffic management system. While there are shortfalls in compliance and monitoring of States’ responsibility to adhere to UN registration requirements, the growing importance of space traffic management is providing a catalyst for reform and recommitment to the ideals upon which the 1975 UN Registration Convention was based. Since the data provided to national registries and the UN register is not detailed enough and is not sufficient for creating a space traffic management regime, it is recommended that (1) the recommendations concerning the registration of space objects belonging to a large constellation that were agreed by the UNCOPUOS Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space in 2023 are implemented to ensure uniformity of registration practice regarding large constellations; (2) States incentivize good registration practices by other States, for instance by requiring that satellites of commercial actors are registered by the relevant launching State as a condition for market access; (3) the importance of furnishing additional information on the subsequent activity and status of objects, as required by the Registration Convention, UN General Assembly resolutions 1721 (XVI) B and 62/101 and Guideline A.5 para 2 of the UNCOPUOS Guidelines on the Long-Term Sustainability of Space Activities, be underlined.

An Agent-Based Approach to Aircraft Conflict Resolution with Constraints

This paper explores how applying a basic management science principle to air traffic management operations can lead to revised roles and responsibilities that allow operations to be handled by the most appropriate participants. Previous research that applied the principle to local departure and arrival management is reviewed; the application is then expanded to regional and national air traffic management. The paper examines the operational and engineering implications of the resulting concept, contrasted with current operations and tools, and identifies where additional research or development is needed. Examples are provided that illustrate the resulting activities at the various air traffic management facilities across a broad range of look-ahead timeframes. I. Introduction HE High-Density Area Departure and Arrival Management (HDDAM) concept was developed in the context of arrival and departure air traffic management in high-density airspace such as Metroplex areas. The management science principles underlying HDDAM appear to be applicable to National Airspace System (NAS) operations at any level, including all phases of planning and flight. This paper explores some operational and engineering implications of such an application to local, regional, and NAS-wide air traffic operations. As described elsewhere, 1-3 HDDAM redefines the decision making processes within the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC), the Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON), and multiple Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCTs) for high-density area departure/arrival traffic management. The decision making authority proposed for each facility reflects the information available to each decision maker and the impact of the decision on their operating environment. Specifically, each facility is responsible for defining the capacity of its air traffic management resources (such as airports, airspace, airways) and requesting resources for flights to use. As shown in Fig. 1 for a single Metroplex, the TRACON has a central role in these interactions, serving as a “broker” between the facilities with the resources and the facilities with requests for use of those resources that are not within their scope of control, while also accounting for the TRACON’s ability to deliver the flights to the resources in question. ATCTs are responsible for requesting resources for departing flights and the ARTCC for requesting resources for arriving flights, as they each possess the best information regarding the status of these flights. Because of the uncertainties present in predicting individual flight departure readiness and inbound air traffic arrival times, the TRACON does not assign specific departure and arrival slots to individual flights. Instead, the TRACON allocates slots to the airports (for departures) and ARTCC (for arrivals) so they can make flight-specific assignments as deemed best for their individual operating environments. This effectively decouples the decisions of the individual ATCTs and the ARTCC, giving each facility increased flexibility to handle situations dynamically as they develop. Air traffic management operations are most effective when the decision makers work as a team. The underlying principle of HDDAM is that this can be accomplished best when all facilities’ roles and responsibilities are based on the management science principle that allows the appropriate level of autonomy at each facility. The principle states that decisions should be assigned to those who are already performing other tasks with the relevant data—those who know the most about the factors affecting the decision—and will be most directly affected by the consequences of 1 Lead Multi-Discipline System Engineer, TFM System Engineering and Evolution, 7515 Colshire Drive, Mailstop

This chapter addresses European space policy perspectives on the establishment of Space Traffic Management from a discourse theory perspective. This includes the study of space and security/defence policies in Europe, taking into consideration the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Union (EU) and national strategies, programmes and governance. The space sector is undergoing transformation. A number of the ESA and EU Member States have developed a dedicated space and security/defence strategy. The chapter presents ESA, the EU and the selected European Member States’ activities with the largest space and security defence budget: France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy and Spain. Space actors in Europe recognise that a Space Traffic Management regime is essential for the security and sustainability of European space activities. Accordingly, they have gradually developed several activities, strategies and policies, which among others set the basis for STM development and reflect the important role of STM in space and security.

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For decades, the airspace volume above today’s commercial traffic at altitudes higher than 60,000 ft - referred to as Higher Airspace (HA) in Europe, Upper Class E in the U.S. or sometimes Near Space - had been largely reserved for specialized military operations, experimental flights, rare exploration missions, and only occasionally interrupted by rocket launches. However, advancements in aerospace technology, a growing demand for expanded air travel, novel airborne capabilities, and a surge of (commercial) rockets launched to sub-orbital and orbital destinations, let to identifying the need to develop concepts for a more closely interfacing and later-on integration between Air Traffic Management (ATM) and Space Traffic Management (STM). Reasons for this are manifold, but they all can be summed up to the fact that methods developed have been done so in different contexts and different times: Procedures to allow crossing of airspace to reach higher altitudes have long lead times that leave little flexibility to adjust launch times to weather conditions or other unforeseen events. Covering against risk from unscheduled failures often requires closing large regions of air space, which does not scale with the number of launches expected over the coming decades. Additionally, every-now-and-then occurring reentries of large objects together with the inherent uncertainties of their predictions lead to closures of airspace that are questionable when considering the probability of casualty causing events, yet understandable when looking at the risk of being responsible if something occurs, without clear procedures and risk description. As an example, the brief closure of Spanish airspace in November 2022 in reaction to a reentering Chinese launcher stage, lead to the delay of more than 300 commercial flights.

This chapter examines what makes Space Situational Awareness (SSA) challenging from the standpoint of policy, finance, and international engagement, and how such challenges impede our ability to mitigate collision and RFI risks. It also examines why timely and substantive improvements are required across the SSA and Space Traffic Management (STM) enterprises to maximize the effectiveness of safety-of-flight procedures and analyses. SSA is critical but insufficient to solely support spaceflight safety. Effective legal and operational constructs are critically important, especially in missions that require the pooling or sharing of operational data. Accurate, comprehensive, and timely space situational awareness is foundational to space traffic management, yet few appreciate the many moving parts required to obtain such SSA. Investment in SSA and STM no longer has a direct relationship with SSA and STM capability. The chapter explains the standard conjunction assessment process and enumerated the commercial, national, and international entities who provide such services.

This chapter reviews the International Civil Aviation Organization air traffic management (ATM) work programme along with ATM developments taking place around the world. It examines the various elements of the ATM system and suggests some of die research, trials and demonstrations. Airspace management is traditionally recognized mainly as involving a dynamic or tactical sharing of airspace by civil and military users. Air Traffic Services itself is comprised of several subelements, one of these being air traffic control. The increasing number of long-range interregional flights may require integration of regional Air Traffic Flow Management systems and procedures. Free Right is the guiding vision, mission and operational concept of the Federal Aviation Administration, based on Communications, Navigation, Surveillance/Air Traffic Management systems (CNS/ATM). Africa is composed of many delicate national economies separated by vast wilderness areas. The main scope of Airspace management will be toward a strategic planning function of airspace infrastructure, and flexibility of airspace use.

A study on basic research priorities and development suggestions for the digital transformation of air traffic management

The rapid advancement of cutting-edge technology has reshaped the global dynamics of the airline sector, elevating the significance of service quality, effectiveness, and protection. As a vital contributor to national economic growth and a public utility, aviation's expansion has directly impacted businesses in the service sector, leading to increased operational opportunities for hotels, restaurants, and travel agencies. This article addresses the challenges within Air Traffic Management (ATM), focusing on the aviation industry's primary concerns. With the continuous growth of aviation traffic, there is a pressing need to enhance security, productivity, and environmental sustainability. The article aims to stimulate business innovation and collaboration in advanced study areas such as dynamic airspace management (DAM), air traffic flow management (ATFM), and collaborative/non-collaborative surveillance. The proposed frameworks, based on Clean Sky and NextGen, incorporate 4D Trajectory Optimization techniques, advanced surveillance technologies, and data link connections to establish a foundation for ATM industry development. Additionally, the research explores adaptive Human-Machine Interface and Interaction (HMI2) forms to automate the assessment and negotiation of aircraft intentions, thereby improving the efficiency and security of ATM operations. The study also addresses specific requirements for cooperative and non-cooperative Detect-and-Avoid (DAA) systems for Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) within the evolving CNS+A process, ensuring their safe and unrestricted access to all airspace types.

Introduction: the increasing number of space objects in orbit and the absence of uniform international standards for space traffic management pose a threat to the safety of spaceflight and increase the risk of debris formation. In light of modern technical and economic developments, it is essential to develop a legal framework for the regulation of space traffic. Purpose: the article aims to analyze the legal aspects of international space traffic management, including relevant rules of current international space law; to identify key components of a potential legal regime; to assess current initiatives in this field and explore the prospects for their implementation based on ongoing discussions within the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Methods: the comparative legal method and legal doctrinal analysis were applied in this work, along with the study of international treaties, national legislation, doctrinal sources, and initiatives from international organizations. Results: the study has shown that current international space law lacks a comprehensive mechanism for managing space traffic. Two potential models for its development are considered in the article: a ‘bottom-up’ approach (harmonization of national regulations) and a ‘top-down’ approach (creation of a universal international agreement). The proposals of the International Academy of Astronautics and the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space were analyzed, including ideas related to enhancing situational awareness in space and utilizing the ICAO's experience in coordinating space flights. Conclusions: the development of an international legal framework for space traffic management necessitates the creation of unified international standards, including maneuvering rules, a data exchange system, and legal liability mechanisms. Further research should consider not only the interests of spacefaring nations but also those of developing states as well as technological developments intended to ensure the safety and sustainability of space activities.