Spatial ability and 3D model colour-coding affect anatomy performance: a cross-sectional and randomized trial

Learning in anatomy can be both spatially and visually complex. Pedagogical investigations have begun exploration as to how spatial ability may mitigate learning. Emerging hypotheses suggests individuals with higher spatial reasoning may attend to images differently than those who are lacking. To elucidate attentional patterns associated with different spatial ability, eye movements were measured in individuals completing a timed electronic mental rotation test (EMRT). The EMRT was based on the line drawings of Shepherd and Metzler. Individuals deduced whether image pairs were rotations (same) or mirror images (different). It was hypothesized that individuals with high spatial ability (HSA) would demonstrate shorter average fixation durations during problem solving and attend to different features of the EMRT than low spatial ability (LSA) counterparts. Moreover, question response accuracy would be associated with fewer fixations and shorter average response times, regardless of spatial reasoning ability. Average fixation duration in the HSA group was shorter than LSA (F(1,8) = 7.99; P = 0.022). Importantly, HSA and LSA individuals looked to different regions of the EMRT images (Fisher Exact Test: 12.47; P = 0.018); attending to the same locations only 34% of the time. Correctly answered questions were characterized by fewer fixations per question (F(1, 8) = 18.12; P = 0.003) and shorter average response times (F(1, 8) = 23.89; P = 0.001). The results indicate that spatial ability may influence visual attention to salient areas of images and this may be key to problem solving processes for low spatial individuals. Anat Sci Educ 10: 224-234. © 2016 American Association of Anatomists.

Conflicting results are reported in the literature on whether dynamic visualizations are more effective than static visualizations for learning and mastering 3-D tasks, and only a few investigations have considered the influence of the spatial abilities of the learners. In a study with 117 participants, we compared the benefit of static vs. dynamic visualization training tools on learners with different spatial abilities performing a typical 3-D task (specifically, creating orthographic projections of a 3-D object). We measured the spatial abilities of the participants using the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and classified participants into two groups (high and low abilities) to examine how the participants' abilities predicted change in performance after training with static versus dynamic training tools. Our results indicate that: 1) visualization training programs can help learners to improve 3-D task performance, 2) dynamic visualizations provide no advantages over static visualizations that show intermediate steps, 3) training programs are more beneficial for individuals with low spatial abilities than for individuals with high spatial abilities, and 4) training individuals with high spatial abilities using dynamic visualizations provides little benefit.

IntroductionFor medical and allied health students, knowledge of anatomical variation is important as it may influence physical examination, diagnosis and treatment of patients. Recent studies indicate anatomical variation should be conceptually integrated early into the anatomy curriculum prior to the discipline specific variations taught in surgical and radiological postgraduate training programs. For academic institutions with limited access to cadaveric dissection and anatomy museums, the opportunity for students to appreciate the range of normality in anatomical structures is diminished. Thus, the purpose of this study was to demonstrate how 3D models of anatomical variations may be used to assess structure, function and spatial relationships by incorporating the concept of anatomical variations into assessment paradigms.MethodsTwo 3D digital models depicting upper limb muscular variations, and a 3D teratological model were evaluated by undergraduate kinesiology (KIN) (n = 30), and graduate clinical anatomy (CA) (n = 10) students. The study protocol consisted of the following instruments introduced in sequence: (1) 30‐question Spatial Ability Test (SAT), (2) 16‐question baseline upper limb anatomy test, (3) 13‐question multiple choice quiz based on the displayed 3D models, and (4) Student perception survey (5‐point Likert scale). Based on SAT scores, a median split was used stratify the students into high (KIN: 15, CA: 5) and low spatial ability (KIN: 15, CA: 5). All data are presented as Mean ± SD.ResultsBoth student groups scored similarly on the baseline anatomy knowledge test (KIN: 71 ± 17 %, CA: 71 ± 12%). The mean 3D model quiz scores for KIN students of high spatial ability were 72 ± 16% compared to those of lower spatial ability, 68 ± 14%. The 3D model quiz scores for CA students of high spatial ability were 88 ± 12% compared to CA students of lower spatial ability, 77 ± 15%. The models were perceived as useful in assessing spatial relationships (KIN: 4.4 ± 0.8, CA: 4.9 ± 0.3) and clinical concepts (KIN: 4.0 ± 0.9 CA: 3.9 ± 0.3). Student perceptions were positive for integrating the 3D models into lecture, or laboratory discussions, but KIN students were relatively neutral (3.2 ± 1.2) compared to CA students (3.9 ± 0.3) in their integrated use in bell‐ringer style laboratory assessments. The students expressed interest for a database of explorable 3D models of anatomical variations.ConclusionIntegration of the 3D variant models into anatomy curricula could be a useful means in assessing fundamental anatomical concepts, while demonstrating how deviations in structure can affect normal function. For institutions with computer access but limited cadaveric resources, the 3D models could be powerful supplementary teaching and assessment tools for anatomy students of all education levels and spatial abilities. Furthermore, development of a database of explorable anatomical variations for teaching and learning purposes would be valuable for allied health and medical programs in search of integrating variant anatomy into their anatomy curricula.Support or Funding InformationSupported by: American Association of Anatomists (AAA) Education Research Scholarship; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Understanding the relationship between cognitive processing and learner performance on tasks using digital media has become increasingly important as the transition towards online learning programs increases. Determining the impact of implementation of instructional resources is often limited to performance outcomes and comparisons to the status quo. This study measured changes in cerebral blood velocity (CBV) of the right middle cerebral artery during visual learning tasks using static images. Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography was used to compare the changes in CBV during learning of individuals with high and low spatial ability. Our results show that there is a slight increase from baseline values of CBV in individuals with high spatial ability during the learning task for the present study. In contrast, individuals with low spatial ability experience a decrement from baseline during the learning task. These results suggest spatial ability mitigates cognitive load and potentially has an impact on learner performance on visual learning tasks.

Spherical video-based virtual reality (SVVR) is an emerging technology in the creation of virtual reality learning contexts. Existing studies have shown that immersion level and spatial ability affect learning performance and experience. Different levels of spatial ability also result in different learning performances and experiences in different levels of immersion, but this interaction effect remains unclear in the SVVR context. We conducted a 2 × 2 factorial experimental study to investigate the interactive effect of immersion level (high vs. low) and students’ spatial ability (high vs. low) on learning performance and experience in the SVVR context. A total of 120 college students participated in the study. The results showed that learning performance, presence, and motivation were significantly higher for high immersion than for low immersion. Learning performance was significantly higher for learners with high spatial ability than for those with low spatial ability. There was a significant interaction effect between immersion level and spatial ability on learning performance. The learning performance of learners with low spatial ability was significantly higher at high immersion than at low immersion. These findings provide a reference for educators to better apply SVVR to their teaching and help them personalize their instruction to students.

Many topics in science are notoriously difficult for students to learn. Mechanisms and processes that exist on a scale outside student experience present particular challenges. While instruction often involves visualizations, students typically explain in words, spoken or written. Visualizations have many advantages over verbal explanations, especially for science, so asking students to produce visual rather than verbal explanations should improve their learning. This hypothesis was tested in two domains, a mechanical system and a chemical system. The explanations were analyzed for content, and learning assessed by a post-test. Participants' spatial ability was also assessed as spatial ability often correlates with learning science. For the verbal explaining of a mechanical system, the bicycle tire pump, high spatial participants performed better than low spatial participants. However, low spatial participants performed better and as well as high spatial participants after producing visual explanations. Visual explanations included significantly greater amounts of structural information, as well as other features essential to understanding function, for example a complete explanation of the inlet valve, a crucial but invisible structural component. In the domain of chemical bonding, visual explanations were more effective than verbal explanations, and high spatial ability participants showed greater learning than low spatial ability participants. Visual explanations contained a significantly greater amount of structural information, made reference to specific examples of chemical compounds, and often contained supplementary text. Text added to visual explanations predicted post-test scores, as did the inclusion of invisible features. Many participants who drew identified actual examples of ionic and covalent molecules. Written explanations often used general terms and presentations of definitions. Explanations generated by high spatial ability participants contained greater amounts of function and were more likely to include specific examples. In both domains, text was often spontaneously added to visual explanations. In Experiment 1, added text was equally likely to describe structure or function; in Experiment 2, added text was more likely to describe function. Taken together, the studies provide support for the use of learner-generated visual explanations as a powerful learning tool and suggest that visual explanations are superior because they demand and provide a check for completeness of explanations.

The purpose of this research is (1) analyze difference in cognitive students learning outomes are taught using direct learning model compared students learning outomes are taught using direct learning model; (2) analyze difference in cognitive students learning outcomes who have high spatial ability compared low spatial ability; and (3) analyze interaction between learning model and spatial ability towards cognitive students learning outomes. The type of research used is experiment research in faktorial design. Population of this research is all of engineering building students in SMK Negeri 3 Jombang includes Geomatika and Engineering Surveying (TSP). Sample of this research is X TSP-1 students as experiment group and X TSP-2 students as control group. The results of this research conclude that: (1) students who had taught using direct learning model gotten cognitive learning outcome significantly hingher than students who had taught using direct learning model; (2) students who have high spatial ability will get cognitive learning outcomes significantly higher than low spatial ability; and (3) there is an interaction significantly between learning model and spatial ability toward cognitive students learning.

In this article, we use eye-tracking technology to analyze the eye movement differences in cognitive maps between high and low level map-based spatial ability participants, revealing key factors of superior spatial ability. It is found that focusing on the perception of spatial structure information, constructing and manipulating complex images psychologically, and positioning by spatial relationship with reference objects are three key factors of superior spatial ability. Based on this, we developed the teaching strategies of geospatial ability to provide reference and suggestions for the education and evaluation of senior high school students' spatial ability.

This study aimed to systematically investigate the impacts of virtual reality (VR) technology integrated with electroencephalogram (EEG) vibrotactile feedback on undergraduate students’ creativity performance, attention value, and cognitive load. 4P’s creativity model was adopted as the macro strategy, with cognitive load theory and constructivist theory serving as a micro strategy. A 2 × 2 quasi-experimental factor design was utilized. A total of 149 undergraduate students with varying spatial abilities were randomly assigned to an experimental group (using a VR interactive system with EEG vibrotactile feedback) and a control group (without feedback). Covariance analysis (ANCOVA) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were employed to identify significant differences among the systems and examine interaction effects among variables. The quantitative results provided empirical evidence that the experimental group exhibited significantly higher levels of creativity performance and attention value than the control group. Furthermore, undergraduate students with higher spatial ability demonstrated lower cognitive load, superior creativity performance, and attention value compared to those with lower spatial ability. The study also revealed that the system positively impacts learning in university creativity education and holds promising potential for improving traditional VR interactive training systems. These findings contribute valuable insights for future research on the application of VR interaction technology and EEG technology in cognitive training for creativity.

This study explored an inclusive microwave oven control panel for users with different spatial operation abilities. The experiment has a 2 (spatial operation abilities) × 2 (flash light types) design. The spatial operation abilities encompass high spatial operation ability and low spatial operation ability. This study uses wholistic (W) and analytic (A) cognitive styles that are tested with Riding's computer-administered Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA) to present low and high spatial operation abilities. Flash light types variable include the flash light and no-flash light types of microwave control panels. The experimental tasks are two typical tasks: a time setting task and a roasting setting task. The experiment results show that both W and A participants had better performances in experimental tasks when they operating the flash light type of microwave oven control panel. This result indicates that the flash light type of microwave oven control panel helps both spatial operation ability users when they conducting both experimental tasks Particularly, it helps the low spatial operation ability users. Therefore, the flash light is suggested to design the microwave oven control panel for all users with different spatial operation abilities.

This study aims at investigating the difference of creativity between the students treated with the Student-Centered Learning (SCL) strategy and the students treated with the Direct Learning strategy. It was a quasi-experimental study employing the non-equivalent control group design. It was conducted using the 2x2 factorial design. The research population were 40 students attending the course of Fabrication Construction Design. The results of the study showed that (1) The creativity of the students using the SCL strategy attained mean scores of 42.65, higher than the students using the Direct Learning strategy with mean scores of 39. (2) The students with high spatial ability using the SCL strategy attained mean scores of 49, higher than the students using the Direct Learning strategy with mean scores of 36.3. (3) The students with low spatial ability using the SCL strategy attained mean scores of 36.3, lower than the students using the Direct Learning strategy with mean scores of 41.70. (4) There was an interaction between the learning strategy and the spatial ability in terms of the effect on the creativity.

Computer-aided instruction is used increasingly in medical education and anatomy instruction with limited research evidence to guide its design and deployment. To determine the effects of (a) learner control over the e-learning environment and (b) key views of the brain versus multiple views in the learning of brain surface anatomy. Randomised trial with 2 phases of study. Participants Volunteer sample of 1st-year psychology students (phase 1, n = 120; phase 2, n = 120). Interventions Phase 1: computer-based instruction in brain surface anatomy with 4 conditions: (1) learner control/multiple views (LMV); (2) learner control/key views (LKV); (3) programme control/multiple views (PMV); (4) programme control/key views (PKV). Phase 2: 2 conditions: low learner control/key views (PKV) versus no learner control/key views (SKV). All participants performed a pre-test, post-test and test of visuospatial ability. A 30-item post-test of brain surface anatomy structure identification. The PKV group attained the best post-test score (57.7%) and the PMV group received the worst (42.2%), with the 2 high learner control groups performing in between. For students with low spatial ability, estimated scores are 20% lower for those who saw multiple views during learning. In phase 2, students with the most static condition and no learner control (SKV) performed similarly to those students in the PKV group. Multiple views may impede learning, particularly for those with relatively poor spatial ability. High degrees of learner control may reduce effectiveness of learning.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of representation sequences and spatial ability on students’ scientific understandings about the mechanism of breathing in human beings. 130 seventh graders were assigned to two groups with different sequential combinations of static and dynamic representations: SD group (i.e., viewing static representations and then dynamic ones), and DS group (i.e., viewing dynamic representations and then static ones). Among them, 16 students (8 from each group) with different levels of prior knowledge and spatial ability were interviewed. Data sources included a spatial ability test, pre- and post-tests of scientific understandings (involving factual, conceptual, and spatial knowledge), and semi-structured interviews. The statistical results indicated that the SD sequence helped students gain significantly more factual knowledge. The significant interaction effects further suggested that while the representation sequences had no effect on students with low spatial ability, high spatial ability students in the SD group outperformed than their counterparts in DS group on the items of the conceptual and spatial knowledge. Additionally, the analysis of interviews indicated that the representation sequences could affect the foci of students’ explanations and shape their perceptions about the representations. The results suggested interplays among representation sequences, spatial ability, and students’ understandings, and provided insight into the design and arrangement of multiple representations for science learning.

PurposeSpatial perception is an essential skill for professional dentists. The objective of this study was to observe the spatial ability, as well as anatomy module grades, of dental students at a dental education center in Indonesia and relate these to gender and cohort.MethodsA cross-sectional study was carried out where dental students in years (cohorts) 1, 2, 4–6 were invited to take the Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (PSVT-R) and the redrawn Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotation Test (MRT) in order to assess spatial ability. In addition, the 1st- and 2nd-year dental students carried out gross anatomy assessments. Spatial ability test results were compared using an independent t-test to detect gender differences, one-way analysis of variance to inspect cohort differences, and correlation relative to anatomy module scores.ResultsA total of 326 dental students voluntarily participated. Statistically significant gender differences were found in both spatial ability tests in the overall sample (PSVT-R: p<0.001; MRT: p=0.001). When the 1st- and 2nd-year dental students were pooled, significant gender differences were detected, in which males scored higher than females in both spatial ability tests (PSVT-R: p<0.001; MRT: p=0.003). In anatomy, however, females scored higher than the males (p=0.005). In addition, there were weak to moderate, but significant correlations between spatial ability tests and anatomy scores.ConclusionThis study indicated that spatial ability may not be the only factor predicting the academic performance of dental students. However, dental students with low spatial ability scores may need supplementary educational techniques when learning specific spatial tasks.

Three‐dimensional (3D) digital anatomical models have been shown to promote student engagement and satisfaction, while demonstrating complex spatial anatomical relationships. However, there is limited research to suggest that 3D digital anatomy models are more effective in improving spatial anatomy performance over traditional resources, particularly for students with varying spatial visualization ability (Vz). The present study aims to investigate the educational effectiveness of a digital 3D stereoscopic anatomy model compared to a 2D visualization and cadaveric specimen of the human pelvis. This study also aims to examine the relationship between Vz and learning from a 3D stereoscopic anatomy model of the human pelvis. We hypothesized that participants learning from the 3D stereoscopic model of the pelvis would improve performance overall on an anatomy knowledge post‐test more than participants learning from a 2D visualization or cadaveric specimen, and that low Vz participants would benefit more from the use of the 3D stereoscopic model compared to their high Vz counterparts.Participants were recruited from the Post‐Baccalaureate, Medical Year 1, and Medical Year 2 classes at Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine (n=64). All participants completed a demographic survey and Mental Rotations Test (MRT) pretest to determine initial Vz. Participants were then sorted into three groups, normalized for MRT score, sex, and education level. Each group was invited to a brief learning session using a 3D stereoscopic model (n=21), 2D visualization (n=21), or cadaveric specimen of the pelvis (n=22) respectively. The 3D model, developed using Amira® software, was projected stereoscopically using a dual projection system. All participants completed a pre‐ and post‐test in each session, consisting of 10 spatially‐oriented multiple choice questions pertaining to pelvis anatomy. Results show no significant difference in improvement from pre‐test to post‐test between the three groups. A linear regression analysis showed no significant correlations between MRT score and anatomy test improvement; however, Post‐Baccalaureate (novice) participants with high Vz tended to improve more after learning with the 3D model than Post‐Baccalaureate participants with low Vz. Participants with high Vz, irrespective of education level, improved more on a spatial anatomy test after learning with the 3D model compared to either of the other resources. Contrary to current literature, participants with low Vz appeared to benefit most from the 2D visualizations. Results of this study can be used to inform resource selection and curriculum design for health professional students, with special attention to the impact of Vz on learning.Support or Funding InformationFunded by a LECOMT Research Support Grant.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.