Spatial Genetic Programming

Linear genetic programming (LGP) is a genetic programming paradigm based on a linear sequence of instructions being executed. An LGP individual can be decoded into a directed acyclic graph. The graph intuitively reflects the primitives and their connection. However, existing studies on LGP miss an important aspect when seeing LGP individuals as graphs, that is, the reverse transformation from graph to LGP genotype. Such reverse transformation is an essential step if one wants to use other graph-based techniques and applications with LGP. Transforming graphs into LGP genotypes is nontrivial since graph information normally does not convey register information, a crucial element in LGP individuals. Here we investigate the effectiveness of four possible transformation methods based on different graph information including frequency of graph primitives, adjacency matrices, adjacency lists, and LGP instructions for sub-graphs. For each transformation method, we design a corresponding graph-based genetic operator to explicitly transform LGP parent’s instructions to graph information, then to the instructions of offspring resulting from breeding on graphs. We hypothesize that the effectiveness of the graph-based operators in evolution reflects the effectiveness of different graph-to-LGP genotype transformations. We conduct the investigation by a case study that applies LGP to design heuristics for dynamic scheduling problems. The results show that highlighting graph information improves LGP average performance for solving dynamic scheduling problems. This shows that reversely transforming graphs into LGP instructions based on adjacency lists is an effective way to maintain both primitive frequency and topological structures of graphs.

A machine code-based genetic programming for suspended sediment concentration estimation

A wavelet–linear genetic programming model for sodium (Na+) concentration forecasting in rivers

In this paper, a variation of traditional Genetic Programming(GP) is used to model the MagnetoencephaloGram(MEG) of Epileptic Patients. This variation is Linear Genetic Programming(LGP). LGP is a particular subset of GP wherein computer programs in population are represented as a sequence of instructions from imperative programming language or machine language. The derived models from this method were simplified using genetic algorithms. The proposed method was used to model the MEG signal of epileptic patients using 6 different datasets. Each dataset uses different number of previous values of MEG to predict the next value. The models were tested in datasets different from the ones which were used to produce them and the results were very promising.

This paper describes a novel evolutionary method for automatic induction of target recognition procedures from examples. The learning process starts with training data containing SAR images with labeled targets and consists in coevolving the population of feature extraction agents that cooperate to build an appropriate representation of the input image. Features extracted by a team of cooperating agents are used to induce a machine learning classifier that is responsible for making the final decision of recognizing a target in a SAR image. Each agent (individual) contains feature extraction procedure encoded according to the principles of linear genetic programming (LGP). Like 'plain' genetic programming, in LGP an agent's genome encodes a program that is executed and tested on the set of training images during the fitness calculation. The program is a sequence of calls to the library of parameterized operations, including, but not limited to, global and local image processing operations, elementary feature extraction, and logic and arithmetic operations. Particular calls operate on working variables that enable the program to store intermediate results, and therefore design complex features. This paper contains detailed description of the learning and recognition methodology outlined here. In experimental part, we report and analyze the results obtained when testing the proposed approach for SAR target recognition using MSTAR database.

We present a general method for deploying parallel linear genetic programming (LGP) to the PC and Xbox 360 video console by using a publicly available common framework for the devices called XNA (for XNA's Not Acronymed). By constructing the LGP within this framework, we effectively produce an LGP game for PC and XBox 360 that displays results as they evolve. We use the GPU of each device to parallelize fitness evaluation and the mutation operator of the LGP algorithm, thus providing a general LGP implementation suitable for parallel computation on heterogeneous devices. While parallel GP implementations on PCs are now common, both the implementation of GP on a video console using GPU and the construction of a GP around a framework for heterogeneous devices are novel contributions. The objective of this work is to describe how to implement the parallel execution of LGP in order to use the underlying hardware (especially GPU) on the different platforms while still maintaining loyalty to the general methodology of the LGP algorithm built for the common framework. We discuss the implementation of texture-based data structures and the sequential and parallel algorithms built for their use on both CPU and GPU. Following the description of the general algorithm, the particular tailoring of the implementations for each hardware platform is described. Sequential (CPU) and parallel (GPU-based) algorithm performance is compared on both PC and video platforms using the metrics of GP operations per second, actual time elapsed, speedup of parallel over sequential implementation, and percentage of execution time used by the GPU versus CPU.

This paper proposes a novel approach for the formulation of elastic modulus of both normal-strength concrete (NSC) and high-strength concrete (HSC) using a variant of genetic programming (GP), namely linear genetic programming (LGP). LGP-based models relate the modulus of elasticity of NSC and HSC to the compressive strength, as similarly presented in several codes of practice. The models are developed based on experimental results collected from the literature. A subsequent parametric analysis is further carried out to evaluate the sensitivity of the elastic modulus to the compressive strength variations. The results demonstrate that the proposed formulas can predict the elastic modulus with an acceptable degree of accuracy. The LGP results are found to be more accurate than those obtained using the buildings codes and various solutions reported in the literature. The LGP-based formulas are quite simple and straightforward and can be used reliably for routine design practice.

This paper proposes a new approach for the formulation of compressive strength of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) confined concrete cylinders using a promising variant of genetic programming (GP) namely, linear genetic programming (LGP). The LGP-based models are constructed using two different sets of input data. The first set of inputs comprises diameter of concrete cylinder, unconfined concrete strength, tensile strength of CFRP laminate and total thickness of utilized CFRP layers. The second set includes unconfined concrete strength and ultimate confinement pressure which are the most widely used parameters in the CFRP confinement existing models. The models are developed based on experimental results collected from the available literature. The results demonstrate that the LGP-based formulas are able to predict the ultimate compressive strength of concrete cylinders with an acceptable level of accuracy. The LGP results are also compared with several CFRP confinement models presented in the literature and found to be more accurate in nearly all of the cases. Moreover, the formulas evolved by LGP are quite short and simple and seem to be practical for use. A subsequent parametric study is also carried out and the trends of the results have been confirmed via some previous laboratory studies.

A developmental co-evolutionary genetic programming approach (PAM DGP) is compared to a standard linear genetic programming (LGP) implementation for trading of stocks across market sectors. Both implementations were found to be impressively robust to market fluctuations while reacting efficiently to opportunities for profit, where PAM DGP proved slightly more reactive to market changes than LGP. PAM DGP outperformed, or was competitive with, LGP for all stocks tested. Both implementations had very impressive accuracy in choosing both profitable buy trades and sells that prevented losses, where this occurred in the context of moderately active trading for all stocks. The algorithms also appropriately maintained maximal investment in order to profit from sustained market upswings.

Graph representations promise several desirable properties for genetic programming (GP); multiple-output programs, natural representations of code reuse and, in many cases, an innate mechanism for neutral drift. Each graph GP technique provides a program representation, genetic operators and overarching evolutionary algorithm. This makes it difficult to identify the individual causes of empirical differences, both between these methods and in comparison to traditional GP. In this work, we empirically study the behaviour of Cartesian genetic programming (CGP), linear genetic programming (LGP), evolving graphs by graph programming and traditional GP. By fixing some aspects of the configurations, we study the performance of each graph GP method and GP in combination with three different EAs: generational, steady-state and (1+lambda ). In general, we find that the best choice of representation, genetic operator and evolutionary algorithm depends on the problem domain. Further, we find that graph GP methods can increase search performance on complex real-world regression problems and, particularly in combination with the (1 + lambda) EA, are significantly better on digital circuit synthesis tasks. We further show that the reuse of intermediate results by tuning LGP’s number of registers and CGP’s levels back parameter is of utmost importance and contributes significantly to better convergence of an optimization algorithm when solving complex problems that benefit from code reuse.

Induction motors are the workhorse in various industry sectors, and their accurate fault detection is essential to ensure reliable operation of critical industrial processes. Since various types of mechanical and electrical faults could occur, induction motor fault diagnosis can be interpreted as a multi-label classification problem. The current and vibration input data collected by monitoring a motor often require signal processing to extract features that can better characterize these waveforms. However, some extracted features may not be relevant to the classification, feature selection is thus necessary. Given such challenges, in recent years, machine learning methods, including decision trees and support vector machines, are increasingly applied to detect and classify induction motor faults. Genetic programming (GP), as a powerful automatic learning algorithm with its abilities of embedded feature selection and multi-label classification, has not been explored to solve this problem. In this paper, we propose a linear GP (LGP) algorithm to search predictive models for motor fault detection and classification. Our method is able to evolve multi-label classifiers with high accuracies using experimentally collected data in the lab by monitoring two induction motors. We also compare the results of the LGP algorithm to other commonly used machine learning algorithms, and are able to show its superior performance on both feature selection and classification.

Abstract: This is a pioneer study that presents two branches of computational intelligence techniques, namely linear genetic programming (LGP) and radial basis function (RBF) neural network to build models for bankruptcy prediction. The main goal is to classify samples of 140 bankrupt and non‐bankrupt Iranian corporations by means LGP and RBF. Another important contribution of this paper is to identify the effective predictive financial ratios based on an extensive bankruptcy prediction literature review and a sequential feature selection analysis. In order to benchmark the proposed models, a log–log regression analysis is further performed. A comparative study on the classification accuracy of the LGP, RBF and regression‐based models is conducted. The results indicate that the proposed models effectively let estimate any enterprise in the aspect of bankruptcy. The LGP models have a significantly better prediction performance in comparison with the RBF and regression models.

Chapter 13 - Gene expression models

We propose the Quantum-Inspired Multi-Gene Lin-ear Genetic Programming (QIMuLGP), which is a generalization of Quantum-Inspired Linear Genetic Programming (QILGP) model for symbolic regression. QIMuLGP allows us to explore a different genotypic representation (i.e. linear), and to use more than one genotype per individual, combining their outputs using least squares method (multi-gene approach). We used 11 benchmark problems to experimentally compare QIMuLGP with: canonical tree Genetic Programming, Multi-Gene tree-based GP (MGGP), and QILGP. QIMuLGP obtained better results than QILGP in almost all experiments performed. When compared to MGGP, QIMuLGP achieved equivalent errors for some experiments with its runtime always shorter (up to 20 times and 8 times on average), which is an important advantage in high dimensional-scalable problems.

An architecture for online discovery quantitative models system of service performance management was proposed. The system was capable of constructing the quantitative models without prior knowledge of the managed elements. The model can be updated continuously in response to the changes made in provider configurations and the evolution of business demands. Due to the existence of strong correlation between the distributed service metrics and response times, a linear and a hyper-linear quantitative models are constructed, which respectively use the stepwise multiple linear regression and genetic programming algorithms. The simulation results show that the effectiveness of quantitative model constructing system and model constructing algorithms.