Spatiotemporal Overlap between the European Brown Hare and Its Potential Predators and Competitors.

Collisions with vehicles are a major cause of wildlife mortality. During the COVID‐19 pandemic, many countries enforced lockdowns that reduced vehicular traffic and consequently wildlife‐vehicle collisions. However, no study has yet explored how traffic‐related mortality declined across multiple species of wildlife, leaving doubts about the species‐specific impact of COVID‐19 on wildlife ecology and management. We modelled how two lockdowns (in spring and autumn 2020) influenced wildlife‐vehicle collisions throughout Slovenia, in central Europe, by comparing weekly roadkill in 2020 with 2010–2019 time series for European roe deer ( n = 53,259), red fox ( n = 9,889), Eurasian badger ( n = 5,170), brown hare ( n = 5,050), stone marten ( n = 4,267), wild boar ( n = 1,188) and red deer ( n = 1,088). During the spring lockdown (16 March–30 April 2020), we observed far fewer collisions than expected for roe deer and badgers. During the autumn lockdown (20 October–31 December 2020), we observed significantly fewer collisions for roe deer and wild boar, but we noted an excess of collisions with badgers. Traffic reduction had a major influence on roe deer, whose roadkill decreased between 156 and 321 individuals. Heterogeneous changes in road mortality across the seven studied species indicate that reductions in human mobility can trigger complex species‐specific dynamics in wildlife assemblages, which may generate compensatory effects beyond lockdowns. For some species, such as roe deer, local reductions in the number of roadkill attained a significant fraction of the overall mortality. This could affect local population dynamics in cases where lockdowns are repeated over a number of years. Policy implications . Management aimed at reducing vehicular traffic, and therefore human disturbance and roadkill, can be evaluated using time‐series analysis of data on multiple species. During times of restricted human movement, local‐scale reductions should be estimated and accounted for in adaptive management, such as for planning culling quotas, to minimize their ecological and socio‐economic impacts while optimizing the outcomes of science‐based population management.

The Pyrenean capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus aquitanicus) is a forest obligate grouse that has experienced a marked population decline in recent decades owing to the lack of optimal habitats. However, the effect of forest structure on potential predators and habitat competitors has not been well-studied. We conducted a camera-trapping study at three conservation areas in Huesca province (northeastern Spain), which were classified as ‘optimal’, ‘favorable’, and ‘unfavorable’ based on habitat suitability for the capercaillie. This study was conducted for 3417 days at a total of 130 camera locations in autumn–winter and spring–summer, capturing 8757 valid photos. In total, 36 different species were recorded. The most frequently detected species were Southern chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica pyrenaica; 32.6%), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus; 18%), wild boar (Sus scrofa; 9.6%), red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris; 6.1%), mustelids (5.6%), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes; 4.8%). Capercaillies were photographed in the optimal and favorable habitat areas. Nest predators, such as mustelids and red fox, were more frequently detected in the favorable area during autumn–winter and in the optimal area in spring–summer, while corvids were more frequently detected in the unfavorable habitat area during both periods. No clear pattern was found for wild boar (nest predator and habitat competitor) or cervids (competitors). As capercaillie coexist with a wide range of predators and competitors, and habitat structure may not always explain species relative abundance, factors such as disturbance and food resources should be also taken into account when aiming to develop targeted management for the benefit of the capercaillie.

From 1997 to 2000, complete necropsy and histopathologic investigations were performed on 157 free-ranging European brown hares (Lepus europaeus) found dead throughout Switzerland. Organ samples of all these individuals (157 livers and 107 spleens available) were tested for European brown hare syndrome virus (EBHSV)-antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test kit. Furthermore, 60 additional blood samples were tested for antibodies against EBHSV by ELISA. In addition, liver samples of 87 free-ranging mountain hares (Lepus timidus) hunted in 1996 were tested for EBHSV-antigen. In two European brown hares from southern Switzerland lesions suggestive of changes induced by EBHSV were present, and high titers of EBHSV-antigen were detected in both liver and spleen samples of these animals. Based on negative staining electron microscopy investigations of liver and spleen homogenates, we observed calicivirus in one antigen-positive hare. Low EBHSV-antigen titers were found in three additional European brown hares from central and western Switzerland, but EBHS-lesions were absent. Antibodies against EBHSV were not detected in any of the sera of European brown hares, and EBHSV-antigen was not found in the samples of mountain hares. This is the first report of EBHS in European brown hares from Switzerland.

The identification and evaluation of the ecological and environmental factors shaping patterns of natural genetic variation are fundamental goals of population and conservation genetics. Many studies focus on factors affecting single species, but it is also important to test whether some influential biotic and abiotic factors are common drivers of genetic diversity across species, or if species or species groups are each affected by different forces; a multi-species analysis is necessary for this. Here we analysed the molecular variation from five mammal species (roe deer, red deer, chamois, mountain hare and European brown hare) at mtDNA and microsatellite loci from the eastern Italian Alps. We use phylogeographical and landscape-level analyses to test the relative influence of large-scale geographical history and contemporary environmental characteristics of the landscape on genetic diversity and differentiation. We found: (1) all study species except brown hare are strongly differentiated into two main groups, located west and east of a major river valley; (2) significant correlations between levels of within-population diversity at both mtDNA and microsatellite loci, and several landscape features such as alpine grassland, water courses and anthropized areas. We conclude that heterogeneous landscape has some influence on within-population diversity, but biogeographical history has probably had the stronger influence on current genetic patterns, despite an apparently large dispersal potential of certain species. However, our results for brown hare show that management actions such as stocking may alter these large-scale patterns.

The diet composition of breeding Eastern Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca) was analysed in Hungary between 2005 and 2017, and compared with two previously published datasets from the periods of 1982–1991 and 1992–2004. Altogether the distribution of 8543 prey items of 126 different species and 29 other taxa were analysed within a 36-years period. We found that the previously abundant Common Hamster (Cricetus cricetus) became marginal (7.42%), while European Sousliks (Spermophilus citellus) practically disappeared (0.03%) from the diet of Imperial Eagles. Small game species, like the Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) and the Brown Hare (Lepus europaeus) composed a remarkable part of the diet (11.22% and 28.11% respectively), which raised some conflicts with hunters regionally and probably also contributed to the high prevalence of persecution incidents against the eagles. In parallel with the loss of traditional prey species, corvids (13.10%), pigeons (8.90%), waterbirds (6.83%), other rodents (6.71%), Roe Deers (Capreolus capreolus) (5.59%), raptors and owls (4.88%) became regularly detected prey species. The temporal changes of the main prey categories were analysed between 1998 and 2017, when the ratio of Hamster and Pheasant showed significant decrease (-27.29% and -6.38%, respectively). The ratio of Brown Hare also showed slight decrease (-3.98%), but the change was not significant. On the other hand, the ratio of corvids, waterbirds and Roe Deers within the diet showed significant increase (+18.20%, +6.25% and +5.39%, respectively). The observed flexibility in the foraging behaviour of Imperial Eagles greatly facilitate conservation efforts, as they seems to be able to utilize the most abundant prey sources, i.e. they were not depending solely from the status of any single specific prey source. However, eagles could only shift and survive in those regions, where their traditional preys decreased, if alternative species were available for them.

Brown hare (Lepus europaeus) seems to outcompete mountain hare (L. timidus) wherever the two species co-occur, but few studies have validated or even addressed this issue. In southern Sweden, the distribution of non-native brown hare overlaps with that of the mountain hare subspecies heath hare (L. t. sylvaticus), possibly the only mammalian subspecies unique to Sweden. In any competitive interaction, at least one species is negatively affected. If outcompetition occurs, then population trends over geographical areas where both species occur should be correlated. In order to assess this, we analysed Swedish hunting harvest data on brown hare and mountain hare for correlations on different spatial scales. We also assessed the relative importance of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) for hare populations by incorporating hunting harvest data for red fox in the analysis. A decline in hunting harvest was observed for both hare species throughout Sweden, while harvest of foxes increased. The harvest decline in mountain hare was generally larger than that in brown hare, particularly in the southern half of Sweden where heath hare is the dominant mountain hare subspecies. Observed patterns in the hunting harvest data for southern Sweden indicate an alarming declining trend for heath hare subspecies, with an obvious risk of extinction. In combination with continued research efforts, we suggest an adaptive management programme to preserve and restore the heath hare subspecies in its current range, through a network of ‘reservoir islands’ with supplementary translocation of heath hare. Developing and implementing an educational public outreach programme aimed at local hunting and naturalist associations can also help facilitate heath hare conservation.

Predation risk allocation hypothesis (Lima & Bednekoff, 1999) predicts that prey activity will decrease when predation risk is high only if there is a high temporal variation in the predation risk. Otherwise, it will remain uniform. Our study (Shapira, Sultan & Shanas, 2008) suggests a spatial component for this hypothesis. The temporal variation in the predation risk is governed by the moon phase, while the spatial variation is related to proximity to agricultural farms. The sandy habitat of the Arava valley, where many endemic species have evolved, is under increasing threat due to agricultural farming sprawl. Our study calls attention to land transformation effects, which may exceed diversity and community degradations by indirectly altering the behaviour of native species. The edge effect may therefore be wider than originally thought. We identified the red fox Vulpes vulpes as a major beneficiary, and an agent of this change. Blumstein (2008) is concerned that predators other than foxes, including past predators, may have caused the behavioural differences in gerbil foraging across the Israel– Jordan border. Gompper & Vanak (2008) also require more data on foxes predating gerbils. Gerbils are part of the red fox diet (Shapira et al., 2008), but as the fox is an omnivorous predator the relative contribution of gerbils to its diet may vary. In a 2-year study in the Arava valley (Shanas et al., 2006), we counted 30 incidents (out of 490 trappings) of foxes preying on gerbils caught in Sherman traps. The foxes actually learned to check the traps during the night and consume the ‘caught meal’ before our arrival in the morning. We agree that to prove that the red fox is the main predator causing fear in gerbils, more experiments are needed. However, the differential abundance of red fox across the border is supported by multiple observations, and now also by track count. Furthermore, the increased fox activity on the Israeli side of the border was apparent not only in transect tracks count, as Blumstein (2008) suggests, but also in the number of locations where fox activity was recorded. This latter measure was significantly higher close to farms. The proposed alternative methodology of capture–recapture for estimating population size has its own drawbacks and may prove to be misleading, especially when used on a relatively highly intelligent mammal such as the red fox. The multipredator theory, formulated by Blumstein (2006), suggests that anti-predator behaviour can be maintained by the presence of any predator, even if some of the natural predators are absent. In the case of the Arava valley, potential gerbil predators such as the sand cat Felis margarita may have become extinct near farms due to human activity. However, the giving-up-density (GUD) study (Shapira et al., 2008) seems to show that the gerbils’ anti-predator behaviour was maintained near farms most probably because of the replacement of cats, and perhaps sand foxes Vulpes ruppellii too, by red foxes as potential predators. Yet, even if the cause of the differential antipredator behaviour across the border is non-red fox past or present predators, the results still suggest that human activity may culminate in behavioural alterations in gerbils. The red fox has been listed as one of the worst invasive species (IUCN, 2005). While the direct effect on prey species is obvious, elucidating cascade effects is important, albeit challenging. For example, the introduction of the arctic fox Alopex lagopus into subarctic islands caused a cascade effect of transforming a plant community from grassland to tundra (Croll et al., 2005). Our study suggests that the effect of commensal predators should be assessed not only on the population level but also behaviourally. Quite possibly, factors other than farming (e.g. mismanagement of garbage) could have contributed to the increased abundance of foxes. But whatever the main cause, the consequences of humans settling and transforming the Arava sands into agricultural land are a greater abundance of foxes. Dickman (2008) suggested that human activity in the farms or roads may also somehow affect the gerbils’ behaviour. We favour the idea that farming has worked its effect on gerbils only

Parasites are often proven major health problem for wildlife. The aim of this study was the investigation of the endoparasites of wild animals sheltered in wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centers in Greece. Faecal samples or gastrointestinal tracts from different mammals were examined by standard parasitological methods (flotation, sedimentation, Ziehl-Neelsen and identification of helminthes). Until now, 30 animals of eleven species were examined. The parasites found were in golden jackal Toxocara canis, Eucoleus aerophilus and Uncinaria stenocephala, in red fox T. canis, E. aerophilus, U. stenocephala, Trichuris vulpis, Brachylaima spp., Prosthorynchus spp. and Mesocestoides lineatus, in roe deer Dicrocoelium dendriticum, in fallow deer Eimeria spp. and Capillaridae, in European and southern white-breasted hedgehogs Eimeria spp., Capillaridae, Crenosoma spp., Physaloptera spp. and Prosthorynchus spp., in European brown hare Trichostrongylus spp., D. dendriticum and Linguatula serrata, in greater noctule bat Capillaridae, Strongylida and Trematoda, while in red squirrel, European badger and European mink no parasites were found. Systematic study of wildlife’s parasites is important in order to enrich the knowledge of wild animals’ parasites, assess their health status, evaluate the impact of their parasites on other wild or domestic animals and Public Health and choose the suitable treatment, especially in case of animals being sheltered in wildlife hospitals.

From the liver tissues of brown hare individuals that lived in two various habitats, i.e., the agricultural region with the predominant farms and the industrial area near a metallurgical plant, histones H1 were analyzed to compare their within and between population variability. Furthermore, because agricultural production emits mainly organic pollutants and metallurgical industry is a primarily source of inorganic contaminations, we wanted to check how the brown hare individuals are sensitive for both agents. Among brown hare H1 histones, the histone H1.2 was determined as heterogeneous due to its varied mobility in two-dimensional SDS–polyacrylamide gel. The obtained electrophoretic patterns contained differently moving single spots of histone H1.2 and also its double spots have a similar rate of electrophoretic mobility. Based on this, two homozygous phenotypes (slowly migrating 2a and faster moving 2b) and a heterozygous phenotype (2a2b) was distinguished. The relatively low variable (CV < 0.25) and comparably abundant (p > 0.05) histone H1.2 homozygous phenotypes form a heterozygous phenotype in a similar proportion, at a ratio approximating 0.5. Although the brown hare population originating from agricultural area displayed a slight excess of heterozygous individuals 2a2b (F = − 0.04), it was conformed to the Hardy–Weinberg assumption (χ2 = 0.035, p = 0.853). Compared with this population, a sevenfold reduced frequency of the phenotype 2b and above tenfold increase of a heterozygosity (F = − 0.53) was observed in the brown hare population inhabiting the vicinity of metallurgical plant. Therefore, this population did not fit to the Hardy–Weinberg law (χ2 = 5.65, p = 0.017). Despite the negligible genetic differentiation (FST = 0.026) between brown hare populations inhabiting areas with different anthropogenic pressure, a statistically significant difference in the distribution of their phenotypes (χ2 = 6.01, p = 0.049) and alleles (χ2 = 6.50, p = 0.013) was noted. The collected data confirm that the brown hare species is sensitive for environmental quality and may serve as a good indicator of habitat conditions related to both organic pollution emitted by agricultural activities (PIC = 0.48) and inorganic contamination originating from metallurgical processes (PIC = 0.49). These difference in the environmental quality might be assessed by estimation of genetic variability among the brown hare populations, based on the phenotypes distribution of histone H1 variant H1.2, the protein that was not so far employed as a molecular marker of anthropogenic stress.

Data from long‐term schemes monitoring abundance and breeding performance were used to investigate the patterns and causes of decline of the Marsh Tit Parus palustris in Britain. Data from the British Trust for Ornithology's Common Birds Census (CBC) showed that declines have occurred to a similar extent in both woodland and farmland. Novel analyses of CBC data with respect to the corresponding data on the abundance of potential avian nest predators and competitors provided no evidence that increases in the numbers of either group have had a deleterious effect on the species. There were no significant relationships with predator numbers and all significant relationships with potential competitors were positive, suggesting common responses to environmental conditions rather than any negative effects of increases in competitor populations. Further evidence for a lack of any effect of nest predation comes from the absence of any decline in breeding success and, specifically, in nest failure rates, over time: failure rates actually fell during the period of decline. The most likely cause of the decline is the degradation of woodland habitats, and the specific ways in which this may have affected Marsh Tits (as opposed to congeneric species whose populations are healthier) are discussed.

Large mammals in temperate climates typically display seasonal patterns of habitat use. However, these patterns are often overlooked because large mammals are usually surveyed at annual intervals. In addition, most studies focus on a single species and ignore other species with which the focal species could interact. Knowing seasonal patterns of habitat use in multiple species and understanding factors that cause these patterns can provide further detail on population dynamics and guide effective conservation planning. Here, using dynamic occupancy modeling, we analyze 11 years of camera-trap data collected in northwestern Anatolia, Turkey, to investigate seasonal habitat use of 8 large-mammal species: Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), Gray Wolf (Canis lupus), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus), European Hare (Lepus europaeus), and Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). For each species, we study the strength of seasonality in habitat use and its dependence on human population density and elevation, which have been shown to affect distributions of species in the region. Although all species exhibited seasonality in habitat use, the strength of this seasonality varied among species; it was strongest in Wild Boar, Roe Deer, and Brown Bear. Moreover, except for Brown Bear, all species tended to avoid sites close to humans. The species responded differently to changing elevation; increasing elevation had both positive and negative effects on species-specific colonization and desertion probabilities, and these effects were likely related to either feeding habits or tendency to avoid humans. These results indicate that seasonality should be taken into consideration in population studies. However, because species differ, seasonality patterns should be identified separately for each species of interest, as differences in these patterns can explain the underlying dynamics of habitat-use patterns more accurately.

Denmark lies on the edge of the distributional range of the brown hareLepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, where population differentiation is most likely to occur. A total of 369 brown hares from eight geographically distinct Danish European brown hare populations were used to study the genetic population structure. In all, 480bp of the mitochondrial D-loop were sequenced in both directions. Observed genetic diversity (π) was relatively low (π=0.41%) while haplotype diversity (h=0.808) and the number of unique haplotypes (19) were similar to levels found in other European brown hare populations. The observed population structure was pronounced (pairwise conventionalF ST and ϕ st ranged between 6.9–57% and 5–69.8%, respectively). There was no correlation between the geographic and the genetic distance. Population structure was influenced by genetic drift, anthropogenic effects (eg translocation and escapes from hare-farms) and by post-glacial recolonization from southern refuges or refuges north east of the Black Sea. Analysis of historical population expansion/fluctuation events indicated that the populations have experienced different demographic events in the recent past. Relatively high sequence divergence between some populations might be explained by multiple recolonization events after the last Pleistocene glaciations or by stocking effects. Colonization from southern refuges was supported by the observation that haplotype 2 in the Danish brown hare was identical to the central European ancestral haplotype c07.

Invasive alien species have the potential to introduce pathogens of economic and health importance in new environments. In Brazil, parasites from the non-native European brown hare can be a threat to humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. Therefore, we aimed to describe the helminth fauna of the invasive European brown hare in three Brazilian states (São Paulo, Paraná, and Rio Grande do Sul). For this, 90 brown hares were collected and examined for helminths. Helminth specimens recovered were morphologically identified and genetically characterized based on the DNA of male specimens using three genetic regions (28S rDNA, ITS-2, and cox-1 mtDNA). Descriptors of infection were calculated, and statistical analysis was performed. Parasites were found only in the small intestine of 14.4% (13/90) of brown hares and low parasite loads per animal were recorded (range = 1-530). The obtained specimens were morphologically identified as Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Bunostomum trigonocephalum. There was a high level of agreement between phylogenetic analysis and morphology for T. colubriformis. The geographical region was the only significant factor for infection; the State of Rio Grande do Sul had a higher general prevalence, higher T. colubriformis specific prevalence, and higher mean abundance than the other states evaluated. All hares were in a good body condition. To our knowledge, this is a new host record for B. trigonocephalum. This is the first study on the helminthological diversity of European brown hares in Brazil, and our results indicate that their helminth fauna is represented by parasites of domestic ruminants with zoonotic potential.

Habitat selection by sympatric muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in a lowland commercial pine forest

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in wildlife of the central apennine mountains, Italy: Assessment of background contamination.