Superimposed Symbology: Attentional Problems and Design Solutions

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper reviews recent human factors research studies conducted in the Aerospace Human Factors Research Division at NASA Ames Research Center related to the development and usage of Enhanced or Synthetic Vision Systems. Research discussed includes studies of field of view (FOV), representational differences of infrared (IR) imagery, head-up display (HUD) symbology, HUD advanced concept designs, sensor fusion, and sensor/database fusion and evaluation. Implications for the design and usage of Enhanced or Synthetic Vision Systems are discussed.</div>

This paper examines the role of human factors in the design of automobiles. A prime objective of our human factors profession is to improve the design of machines, thereby benefiting users in terms of comfort, convenience, operating speeds, accuracy and safety. Although the purpose of an automotive human factors program may be to achieve all of these objectives by improving vehicle design, the mechanisms for doing so probably cannot be discovered by focusing research attention on the vehicle element of the driver/vehicle/road system. In fact, the nonvehicle parts of this system are probably by far the most productive topics for future human factors research. The abilities of drivers, their limitations, and the tasks imposed upon them by the traffic environment should indicate how vehicles can be designed to best serve the drivers' needs. After twenty years of automotive study, the human factors research community is surprisingly unprepared to participate in vehicle design projects. The vehicle has too often ended up the subject of human factors research and researchers have been faced with the job of finding ways to improve the vehicle or a vehicle component without knowing enough about the intended user or the job the user must perform. The research community has only rudimentary and often incomplete background information about drivers and their traffic environments. The meager data base which is available suggests that traditional empirical approaches for evaluating machine design may be too cumbersome and time consuming to keep pace with other aspects of automotive technological evolution. The tradition of developing alternative versions of hardware and subjecting the alternatives to human performance tests may not be a viable methodology in the future. A look at the total automotive system shows why. Drivers in the United States accumulate about 1.6 trillion miles of travel each year. During the year, a typical driver makes over 60,000 discrete control operations not counting steering wheel movements. The immensity of the automotive system means that very small driver error rates in control usage quickly accumulate into large numbers of error events nationwide. The best information available suggests that the D. S. driving public uses their turn signals 854 billion times a year. This amounts to a nationwide rate of 27,000 times per second. If the generic human error rate in using the turn signal can assumed to be one error per 1000 operations, then turn signal errors are being made at the rate of 27 per second nationwide. Human factors research has tended to avoid error rate as a principal measure of performance in research programs. The reason becomes apparent when the number of tests which must be conducted to detect changes in rare events such as turn signal errors is computed. If two turn signal designs are to be compared and the researcher wants to be able to detect with 95 percent certainty (at the 5% level of significance) that the error rate has been cut in half by one of the two designs, then a large experiment is required. At a base human error rate of 1 per thousand, about 130,000 observations must be conducted to reliably detect the desired reduction in errors. If the base human error rate is only 1 in 100, then only 13,000 observations will be needed. Unfortunately, information on the frequency of driver control usage is sketchy, and data on driver error rates when using controls under the natural loading of the driving task is all but nonexistent. Other measures of human performance, such as speed of operation and accident involvement rates, have limited application in automotive design for reasons that are discussed in this paper. Some of the data bases which have been accumulated for human factors evaluations by Ford Motor Company are described in this paper. It is concluded that, if the human factors profession is to keep pace with automotive technological evolution, more research effort is going to have to be devoted to the study of drivers and driving-environment factors. For the sake of research efficiency, human factors principles and systems models which can be reliably generalized across vehicle designs must be developed. Several systems models that are under development at Ford are briefly described.

A new flight simulation facility nearing completion at the NASA Ames Research Center is described. The facility is intended to support aeronautical human factors research and consists of a new building, two full mission flight simulators and an air traffic control simulator. Special features of the new facility are described which make it particularly well suited for human factors research.

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Since 2000, avionics is facing several changes, mostly driven by technological improvements in the electronics industry and innovation requirements from aircraft manufacturers. First, it has progressively lost its technological leadership over innovation processes. Second, the explosion of the electronics consumer industry has contributed to shorten even more its technology life cycles, and promoted the use of COTS. Third, the increasing complexity of avionics systems, which integrate more and more functions, have encouraged new players to enter the market.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The aim of this article is to analyze how technological changes can affect the competitiveness of avionics firms. We refer to criticality levels as a determinant of the market competitiveness. Certification processes and costs could stop new comers to bring innovations from the consumer electronics industry and protects traditional players.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The study will compare three avionics systems regarding their patent dynamics since 1980: flight controls, Integrated Modular avionics and Head-Up Displays. We assume that differences in the market competitiveness may appear due to their differences in their related criticality level. Systems belonging to Design Assurance Level A or B required wide-range of capabilities and long-term experience. The opportunity for new comers to introduce a certified-version of their product could be constrained by certification requirements.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The major goal of Space Human Factors program is to provide the technology which will enable safe and productive human performance throughout and after long duration space flights and planetary/lunar missions. The Human Factors element has three major sub-goals:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">1.</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Human Performance Models, Data and Tools - provide the basic understanding of human's activities in the physical, mental, and perceptual domains and to identify important lessons learned about human activities from prior space and lunar missions. To this end, Johnson Space Center is using a laser-based human body mapping system to measure different anthropometric sizes and shapes for incorporation into a large database. This database is employed, along with a spatial computer image graphics system, to analyze human motion in zero gravity conditions as the hypothetical, human bodysized figure performs a variety of new procedures in Space Station Freedom or in the Shuttle orbiter. At Ames Research Center, human performance models for computer-aided engineering, a program initially developed for aeronautical applications, are being modified for space applications. The value of the dynamic human performance models lies in the versatility in which various management decisions can be evaluated as to their impact on mission effectiveness, personnel skill and knowledge allocation, workload, workstation and cockpit design, and overall system design.</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">2.</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Crew Support and Enhancement - address the development of technology and its applications for the evaluation of the crew's living and working activities in the spacecraft and planetary/lunar habitat and on planetary/lunar surfaces. During the year, a number of projects were completed. At Johnson Space Center, new computer graphics were developed, particularly new methods for portraying procedures which reduce human error. Also, advances in information management methods for application to Shuttle maintenance operations were developed at Ames Research Center. Data from Kennedy Space Center operations is being used as a testbed for managing the information processing in maintenance.</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">3.</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Human-Automation-Robotic Systems - determine the means by which humans and automated or semi-autonomous systems can effectively work together. A major project at Ames Research Center is the development of the Virtual Workstation as a user interface device for exploring lunar or planetary surfaces. The effort this year has been to obtain a Mar-like data base and begin to employ it in simulated missions. At Johnson Space Center, effort was directed toward identifying the best location of visual sensors for teleoperations.</div> </li> </ol> </div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">In February 2004 NASA released “The Vision for Space Exploration.” The important goals outlined in this document include extending human presence in the solar system culminating in the exploration of Mars. Unprocessed waste poses a biological hazard to crew health and morale. The waste processing methods currently under consideration include incineration, microbial oxidation, pyrolysis and compaction. Although each has advantages, no single method has yet been developed that is safe, recovers valuable resources including oxygen and water, and has low energy and space requirements. Thus, the objective of this project is to develop a low temperature oxidation process to convert waste cleanly and rapidly to carbon dioxide and water.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In the Phase I project, TDA Research, Inc. demonstrated the potential of a low temperature oxidation process using ozone. In the current Phase II project, TDA and NASA Ames Research Center are developing a pilot scale low temperature ozone oxidation system. We are conducting tests in a reactor design that maximizes the contact between the ozone and the waste bed. In initial tests with a large volume reactor we were able to achieve higher oxidation rates than we obtained in the Phase I portion of this project. However, on occasion, the waste began to burn rapidly, producing high temperature and pressure spikes in the reactor. Therefore, we redesigned the reactor to mitigate the rapid ignition of the waste. In initial tests, we found that adding water to the waste bed and flowing ozone through the water-waste mixture provides much better control of the low temperature oxidation process. The addition of water likely produces a more uniform temperature throughout the waste, reducing localized hot spots that initiated the rapid combustion process. In addition, we have obtained better agreement between the gravimetric data and the results calculated with integrated CO<sub>2</sub> data, indicating that a higher percentage of waste has been oxidized to CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>O before exiting the reactor.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Once we have optimized the reactor design and waste oxidation process we will incorporate the design into a closed loop, fully automated system that will convert the waste into H<sub>2</sub>O and CO<sub>2</sub>, remove both compounds, and replenish the circulating gas stream with oxygen and ozone as needed. In addition, the system will contain the analytical equipment necessary to carry out a complete material balance and monitor the formation of pollutants such as NO<sub>X</sub> and SO<sub>X</sub>. At the conclusion of the project the system will be delivered to NASA Ames for their use and evaluation.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The development of virtual environment technology at NASA Ames Research Center and other research institutions has created opportunities for enhancing human performance. The application of this technology to training astronaut flight crews planning to go onboard the International Space Station has already begun at the NASA Johnson Space Center. A unique application of virtual environments to crew training is envisioned at NASA Ames Research Center which combines state of the art technology with haptic feedback to create a method for training crewmembers on critical life sciences operations which require fine motor skills. This paper describes such a concept, known as the Virtual Glovebox, as well as surveys other applications of virtual environments to astronaut crew training.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The Space Station Projects Office (SSPO) at NASA's Ames Research Center (ARC) is responsible for operational plans for plant and animal research in the Life Sciences Research Facility (LSRF) aboard the Space Station. As a planning database, the SSPO uses scientists' descriptions of experiment operations, configured into scenarios for typical 90-day missions. Both research tasks and tasks involving specimen care and housekeeping are included. Four of these scenarios were used to test a computer program named <i>OpSim</i>, developed by the ARC Space Human Factors Office specifically to simulate Space Station operations. The tasks for each scenario were set up for inputting to <i>OpSim</i>, simulations were executed and program output was analyzed. Some scenarios were simulated more than once, at different levels of crew time availability and of laboratory automation. The test showed that <i>OpSim</i> gives an informative picture of mission operations, and that it responds appropriately to changes in variables such as crew availability and automation. <i>OpSim</i> should become widely used to model Space Station operations and develop realistic plans.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">For the last two years, the University of Utah and Reaction Engineering International, in cooperation with NASA Ames Research Center (ARC), have been developing a waste incineration system for regenerative life support systems. The system is designed to burn inedible plant biomass and human waste. The goal is to obtain an exhaust gas clean enough to recycle to either the plant or human habitats. The incineration system, a fluidized bed reactor, has been designed for a 4-person mission. This paper will detail the design of the units. In addition, results will be presented from testing at the University of Utah. Presently, the unit has been shipped to Ames Research Center for more tests prior to delivery to Johnson Space Center for testing in a 90-day, 4-person test.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">During this study, the conceptual design of a 19 passenger turbofan transport aimed primarily at the regional/ commuter market was synthesised. Final configuration selection was based on a method conceived by the author which incorporates a hybrid of the conventional intuitive conceptual design process with overtones of a non-hierarchic multi-disciplinary optimisation philosophy. To ensure validity of the aforementioned design and optimisation algorithms, the General Aviation Synthesis Program (GASP) software developed by NASA-Ames Research Centre and subsequently refined by Williams- Rolls Inc. was used. In addition, attention was paid during the design sequence to minimise the alterations necessary for variants of the basic design, i.e. future extended range and stretched versions. The final proposal ended with a vehicle that displays marketing flexibility, competitive field performance, superior climb capability with significant increases in block speed, and more poignantly, higher potential for profit upon comparison to contemporary turboprops.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The X-36 is a remotely piloted 28% scale model of a two-axis-unstable notional future fighter aircraft with canards, a mid-wing and features the absence of any vertical control surfaces, <span class="xref">Figure 1</span>. The aircraft was jointly developed by the NASA Ames Research Center and McDonnell Aircraft & Missile Systems and flight tested at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. Objectives of this program were to demonstrate fighter aircraft agility for a vertical tailless configuration and to demonstrate the development of a low cost alternative to full size prototype aircraft. This paper presents some aspects of the subsystem integration methodology used to develop the X-36 Tailless Agility Research Aircraft.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Virtual NVH Engineering is going to be reviewed in this paper for the development of FIE (fuel injection equipment) components. Some examples based on high pressure pumps and SCR air cooling injectors will illustrate the explanation.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The use of a 3D FEM vibro-acoustic model is essential to support virtual NVH Engineering. Therefore, a review of techniques to study components is done first. Model correlation is also an important topic which will be discussed and which makes any NVH engineer confident in using a model instead of real HW. It is quite challenging to establish these models, as they must mimic the entire physical phenomenon of real structure borne hardware sound in the whole audible frequency range. Limitations of models are also identified and allow answering one true question: Should we stay considering only each component separately or as an assembly of parts of a larger system in the development process?</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Once a model of the studied component or system is established, some comparisons of variants can be initiated in the virtual domain. Standard spectrum analysis can be completed with psychoacoustic criterion to better judge the quality of the predicted sound by simulation and to decide for the best design solution.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A supersonic STOVL fighter aircraft aerodynamic research program is being conducted at NASA Ames Research Center. The research focuses on technology development for this type of aircraft and includes generating an extensive aerodynamic database and resolving particular aerodynamic uncertainties for various twin- and single-engine aircraft concepts. Highlights of the results from this program are presented. The highlights include propulsion-induced effects on the aircraft drag, prediction capabilities, volume integration for minimizing drag, and wave drag and aerodynamic efficiency comparisons. Results indicate that estimated STOVL fighter performance is roughly comparable to the performance of modern conventional fighters in terms of wave drag and aerodynamic efficiency.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Significant progress has been made at NASA Ames Research Center in the development of a heat melt compaction device called the Plastic Melt Waste Compactor (PMWC). The PMWC was designed to process wet and dry wastes generated on human space exploration missions. The wastes have a plastic content typically greater than twenty percent. The PMWC removes the water from the waste, reduces the volume, and encapsulates it by melting the plastic constituent of the waste. The PMWC is capable of large volume reductions. The final product is compacted waste disk that is easy to manage and requires minimal crew handling. This paper describes the results of tests conducted using the PMWC with a wet and dry waste composite that was representative of the waste types expected to be encountered on long duration human space exploration missions.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Advanced space life support systems, especially systems that include growing plants to produce food, require the recovery of resources - primarily carbon dioxide and water - from various hydrocarbon wastes. Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) of wastes is one of several possible techniques for oxidizing waste organics to recover the carbon dioxide and water. Supercritical water oxidation has the advantages of fast kinetics, complete oxidation, and the minimization of undesirable side products. However, the SCWO process requires further development before the process can be implemented in space life systems. One of the SCWO development needs is in the area of destruction of insoluble solids - such as inedible biomass or human wastes. Insoluble solids have to be introduced into a SCWO reactor as particles, and it can be expected that the particle size of the solids will affect the rate of reaction. Once the effects of particle size are understood, then the requirements for grinding or other preparation of feed solids before introduction into the reactor can be defined. To study the effects of particle size an experimental effort was begun at NASA Ames Research Center. Particles of polystyrene bead ranging in diameter from 3.4 μm to 220 μm were tested. A significant particle size effect on the rate of reaction was measured at 720°F.</div>