Superpixel-based segmentation for multi-temporal PolSAR images

With the improvement of spatial resolution of polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR ) images, there was more research on texture features extracted from PolSAR images; however, the performance of texture features derived from different descriptors in PolSAR images was not fully explored. In this study, the performance of combining polarization features with texture features extracted by four descriptors, respectively, in land cover classification was explored. The experimental results indicated that: (1) different texture features have different abilities to distinguish ground objects; (2) with the improvement of spatial resolution of PolSAR images, texture features should not be ignored; (3) polarization features are very important for land cover classification, texture features can be used as auxiliary features to further improve the classification accuracy. This study could serve as a meaningful reference for information extraction from PolSAR images.

PolSAR image segmentation based on feature extraction and data compression using Weighted Neighborhood Filter Bank and Hidden Markov random field-expectation maximization

Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolSAR) image classification is an important research content in the field of remote sensing. However, the lack of effective labeled data and the serious class distribution shift problem between different datasets hinder the application of deep learning networks in PolSAR image classification. Therefore, this paper proposes a Bi-classifier adversarial network based on covariance difference matrix and Convolutional Block Attention Module (CBAM) to solve the cross-domain problem in PolSAR images. Firstly, since PolSAR image processing generally uses the covariance matrix or coherence matrix of a single target pixel to construct the data set, which cannot effectively use the local information of PolSAR data,Therefore, the PolSAR coherence difference matrix P is proposed as the description of the PolSAR image difference information. Secondly, due to the different importance of features between neighboring pixels, the CBAM mechanism is introduced in order to exploit the spatial information of PolSAR data. Finally, in order to solve the cross-domain problem of PolSAR images more effectively, a bi-classifier adversarial network based on covariance difference matrix and CBAM is proposed. In this paper, we conduct experiments on public datasets, using images of San FranciscoⅠ acquired in 2008 as the source domain, and images of San Francisco Ⅱ acquired in 1992 as the target domain data. The experimental results show that the proposed method can effectively solve the cross-domain problem of PolSAR images.

In recent years, more attention has been attracted on the classification of polarimetric SAR (PolSAR) images and a lot of methods have been proposed. With the resolution increasing, the pixel-based classification methods reveal insufficiency, therefore, this paper proposes an improved SLIC superpixel algorithm for PolSAR images classification. Firstly, effective polarization features, such as polarimetric scattering power of typical scattering mechanism based on target decomposition and spatial texture information based on statistical analysis, are extracted from PolSAR images and these features construct a feature vector to obtain a better description of PolSAR images. Then, the Euclidean distance of the feature vector is used to improve the SLIC algorithm to obtain superpixels segmentation and meantime reduce the execution time. In addition, a useful dissimilarity measurement is implemented to maintain the edges of different area in PolSAR image. At last, based on the superpixel segmentation result, a region-based classification using SVM is conducted. The proposed method is validated by EMISAR test PolSAR image and the experimental results confirm the performance and potential of the proposed method in PolSAR image interpretation.

Supervised polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) image classification demands a large amount of precisely labeled data. However, such data are difficult to obtain. Therefore, many unsupervised methods have been proposed for unsupervised PolSAR image classification. The classification maps of unsupervised methods contain many high-confidence samples. These samples, which are often ignored, can be used as supervisory information to improve classification performance on PolSAR images. This study proposes a new unsupervised PolSAR image classification framework. The framework combines high-confidence superpixel pseudo-labeled samples and semi-supervised classification methods. The experiments indicated that this framework could achieve higher-level effectiveness in unsupervised PolSAR image classification. First, superpixel segmentation was performed on PolSAR images, and the geometric centers of the superpixels were generated. Second, the classification maps of rotation-domain deep mutual information (RDDMI), an unsupervised PolSAR image classification method, were used as the pseudo-labels of the central points of the superpixels. Finally, the unlabeled samples and the high-confidence pseudo-labeled samples were used to train an excellent semi-supervised method, similarity matching (SimMatch). Experiments on three real PolSAR datasets illustrated that, compared with the excellent RDDMI, the accuracy of the proposed method was increased by 1.70%, 0.99%, and 0.8%. The proposed framework provides significant performance improvements and is an efficient method for improving unsupervised PolSAR image classification.

The phase difference, amplitude product, and amplitude ratio between two polarizations are important discriminators for terrain classification, which derives a significant statistical-distribution-based polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) image classification. Traditionally, statistical-distribution-based PolSAR image classification models pay attention to two aspects: searching for a suitable distribution to model certain PolSAR image and a satisfactory solution for the corresponding distribution model with samples in every terrain. Usually, the described distribution form is too complicated to build. Besides, inaccurate parameter estimation may lead to poor classification performance for PolSAR image. In order to refrain from this phenomenon, a variational thought is adopted for the statistical-distribution-based PolSAR classification method in this paper. First, a mixture Wishart model is built to model the PolSAR image to replace the complicated distribution for the PolSAR image. Second, a learning-based method is suggested instead of inaccurate point estimation of parameters to determine the distribution for every class in the mixture Wishart model. Finally, the proposed learning-based mixture Wishart model will be built as a variational form to realize a parametric model for PolSAR image classification. In the experiments, it will be proved that the class centers are easier to distinguish among different terrains learned from the proposed variational model. In addition, a classification performance on the PolSAR image is superior to the original point estimation Wishart model on both visual classification result and accuracy.

Superpixel segmentation is widely used in polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) image classification. However, the classification method using simple majority voting cannot easily handle evidence conflicts in a single superpixel. At present, there is no method to evaluate the quality of superpixel classification. To solve the above problems, this paper proposes a hybrid classification model based on superpixel entropy discrimination (SED), and constructs a two-level cascade classifier. Firstly, a light gradient boosting machine (LGBM) was used to process large-dimensional input features, and simple linear iterative clustering (SLIC) was integrated to obtain the primary classification results based on superpixels. Secondly, information entropy was introduced to evaluate the quality of superpixel classification, and a complex-valued convolutional neural network (CV-CNN) was used to reclassify the high-entropy superpixels to obtain the secondary classification results. Experiments with two measured PolSAR datasets show that the overall accuracy of both classification methods exceeded 97%. This method suppressed the evidence conflict in a single superpixel and the inaccuracy of superpixel segmentation. The test time of our proposed method was shorter than that of CV-CNN, and using only 55% of CV-CNN test data could achieve the same accuracy as using CV-CNN for the whole image.

Considering the clustering algorithms could explore the label information automatically, this paper proposes a new method in terms of polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (POLSAR) image classification, which named a clustering-wishart-auto-encoder (WAE) classification model. With considering the statistical distribution characteristic of the POLSAR image, the WAE classification model, which proposed by ourselves, could improve the classification performance of the POLSAR image to some extent. The clustering-WAE classification model, that embedded the K-means clustering algorithm into the objective function of the WAE model, has the ability to improve the network performance. Our proposed method could minimize the difference of intra-class data and maximize the difference of inter-class data, from which the obtained POLSAR image features will be more compact to their corresponding cluster centers. Via simultaneously considering the compactness and statistical distribution of data, our method is capable of improving the POLSAR image classification results. The effectiveness of our proposed classification model has been demonstrated on four real POLSAR data sets.

In this study, a weakly supervised classification method is proposed to classify the Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolSAR) images based on sample refinement using a Complex-Valued Convolutional Neural Network (CV-CNN) to solve the problem that the bounding-box labeled samples contain many heterogeneous components. First, CV-CNN is used for iteratively refining the bounding-box labeled samples, and the CV-CNN that can be used for direct classification is trained simultaneously. Then, the given PolSAR image is classified using the trained CV-CNN. The experimental results obtained using three actual PolSAR images demonstrate that the heterogeneous components can be effectively eliminated using the proposed method, obtaining significantly better classification results when compared with those obtained using the traditional fully supervised classification method in which original bounding-box labeled samples are used. Furthermore, the proposed method with CV-CNN is superior to those in which the classical Support Vector Machine(SVM) and Wishart classifier are used.

Polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) image classification has achieved great progress, but there still exist some obstacles. On the one hand, a large amount of PolSAR data is captured. Nevertheless, most of them are not labeled with land cover categories, which cannot be fully utilized. On the other hand, annotating PolSAR images relies more on domain knowledge and manpower, which makes pixel-level annotation harder. To alleviate the above problems, by integrating contrastive learning and transformer, we propose a novel patch-level PolSAR image classification, i.e., two-staged contrastive learning and sub-patch attention based network (TCSPANet). Firstly, the two-staged contrastive learning based network (TCNet) is designed for learning the representation information of PolSAR images without supervision, and obtaining the discrimination and comparability for actual land covers. Then, resorting to transformer, we construct the sub-patch attention encoder (SPAE) for modelling the context within patch samples. For training the TCSPANet, two patch-level datasets are built up based on unsupervised and semi-supervised methods. When predicting, the classification algorithm, classifying or splitting, is put forward to realise non-overlapping and coarse-to-fine patch-level classification. The classification results of multi-PolSAR images with one trained model suggests that our proposed model is superior to the compared methods.

In recent years, sparse representation-based techniques have shown great potential for pattern recognition problems. In this paper, the problem of polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) image classification is investigated using sparse representation-based classifiers (SRCs). We propose to take advantage of both polarimetric information and contextual information by combining sparsity-based classification methods with the concept of superpixels. Based on polarimetric feature vectors constructed by stacking a variety of polarimetric signatures and a superpixel map, two strategies are considered to perform polarimetric-contextual classification of PolSAR images. The first strategy starts by classifying the PolSAR image with pixel-wise SRC. Then, spatial regularization is imposed on the pixel-wise classification map by using majority voting within superpixels. In the second strategy, the PolSAR image is classified by taking superpixels as processing elements. The joint sparse representation-based classifier (JSRC) is employed to combine the polarimetric information contained in feature vectors and the contextual information provided by superpixels. Experimental results on real PolSAR datasets demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed approaches. It is proven that the classification performance is improved by using contextual information. A comparison with several other approaches also verifies the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) image semantic segmentation is currently of great importance for synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image interpretation, especially in agricultural applications. Several convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have been implemented for SAR image semantic segmentation in urban or land cover applications. However, existing CNNs often break one semantic area into several pieces or confuse the adjacent semantic area in a PolSAR image. To address these issues uniformly, a refined pyramid scene parsing network (PSPNet) is proposed for PolSAR image semantic segmentation in an agricultural areas. Compared to conventional PSPNet architecture, the refined PSPNet adopts a multilevel feature fusion design in its decoder to effectively exploit the features learned from its different encoder branches. Besides, a polarimetric channel attention module is incorporated into the network to capture rich polarimetric features in a PolSAR image. Furthermore, an edge-aware loss function is devised to guide the network to refine pixel-level edge information directly from semantic segmentation prediction, separating easily confused agriculture area with sharp contours. Experimental results on one airborne millimeter-wave PolSAR dataset verify that the proposed network achieves promising semantic segmentation accuracy and preferable spatial consistency.

Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolSAR) image classification is one of the most important applications in remote sensing. The impressive superpixel generation approaches can improve the efficiency of the subsequent classification task and restrain the influence of the speckle noise to an extent. Most of the classical PolSAR superpixel generation approaches use the features extracted manually and even only consider the pseudocolor images. They do not make full use of polarimetric information and do not necessarily lead to good enough superpixels. The deep learning methods can extract effective deep features but they are difficult to combine with superpixel generation to achieve true end-to-end training. Addressing the above issues, this study proposes an end-to-end fully convolutional superpixel generation network for PolSAR images. It integrates the extraction of polarization information features and the generation of PolSAR superpixels into one step. PolSAR superpixels can be generated based on deep polarization feature extraction and need no traditional clustering process. Both the performance and efficiency of generations of PolSAR superpixels can be enhanced effectively. The experimental results on various PolSAR datasets show that the proposed method can achieve impressive superpixel segmentation by fitting the real boundaries of different types of ground objects effectively and efficiently. It can achieve excellent classification performance by connecting a very simple classification network, which is helpful to improve the efficiency of the subsequent PolSAR image classification tasks.

In this paper, we propose a variational model for Polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) data speckle reduction. Since the statistical characteristic of covariance matrix can be well described by the complex Wishart distribution, a data fitting term can be derived according to the maximum likelihood rule. Combining it with the total variation (TV) regularization gives a variational model for PolSAR image speckle reduction. An algorithm based on the alternating minimization technique is used to solve the variational problem. Experimental results on real PolSAR images demonstrate the validity of the proposed method.

Deep neural networks have achieved remarkable results in the field of polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) image classification. However, PolSAR is affected by speckle imaging, resulting in PolSAR images usually containing a large amount of speckle noise, which usually leads to the poor spatial consistency of classification results and insufficient classification accuracy. Semantic segmentation methods based on deep learning can realize the task of image segmentation and classification at the same time, producing fine-grained and smooth classification maps. However, these approaches require enormous labeled data sets, which are laborious and time-consuming. Due to these issues, a new multi-modal contrastive fully convolutional network, named MCFCN, is proposed for PolSAR image classification in this paper, which combines multi-modal features of the same pixel as inputs to the model based on a fully convolutional network and accomplishes the classification task using only a small amount of labeled data through contrastive learning. In addition, to describe the PolSAR terrain targets more comprehensively and enhance the robustness of the classifier, a pixel overlapping classification strategy is proposed, which can not only improve the classification accuracy effectively but also enhance the stability of the method. The experiments demonstrate that compared with existing classification methods, the classification results of the proposed method for three real PolSAR datasets have higher classification accuracy.