Tertiary education as social policy: Comparative theoretical perspectives

This paper draws on a research project which investigated the participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in tertiary education in northern Australia. The author uses the term ‘tertiary education’ to refer to various levels of post-secondary education, including universities, colleges, and technical and further education systems. In the past, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have faced exclusion from such institutions, and even today their participation rates in tertiary education are significantly lower than that of the non-indigenous population. This paper explores how perceptions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have influenced their participation in tertiary education, and have limited their indigenous rights. The author also draws back for a world-wide view of the conflict between indigenous rights and individual rights, with a particular emphasis on equity and access to tertiary education in Australia. The author concludes his paper with the statement of his belief that instead of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders being represented as a ‘disadvantaged’ group, with an emphasis on equity, they be represented as indigenous, with an emphasis on indigenous rights.

Students’ commitment and engagement in the educational process are shaped by a dense combination of factors, with effects on educational attainment and on the length of their educational careers. Decisions of prolonging education by enrolling in master’s degrees are beneficial for both individuals and societies, as such programs provide higher levels of specialized skills Longer educational careers are favored by a mix of factors acting at the level of individual, university, or wider environment. We focus our study on exploring factors conducive for students’ intentions to pursue master’s degrees considering longer educational careers as desirable outcomes. Thus, this article investigates how the individual and environmental factors interplay and shape the predisposition of students to prolong their educational career by enrolling in master’s degrees. For this, we applied three-level logistic regression models for a sample of 502 students enrolled in their final year of bachelor studies grouped by universities and universities grouped by counties. The empirical results revealed that the final grade, the father level of education, the type of working contract, and job seniority are individual-level determinants influencing the decision of enrolment in a master’s program. At the university level, the type of university and the university performance score positively impact the students’ decision to enroll in a master’s program. At the county level, the empirical evidence pointed out the significance of determinants such as the proportion of students enrolled in bachelor studies; participation rate in education and training; employment level in high-technology sectors (HTC), total-knowledge intensive sectors (KIS), and knowledge-intensive high-technology sectors (KIS_HTC); proportion of persons with tertiary education employed in science and technology; proportion of scientists and engineers; local development; R&D expenditure, personnel, and researchers in the business sector; average gross earnings; density of active firms; birth rate of companies; proportion of innovative enterprises or those introducing product innovations on the decision to enroll in a master’s program.

This report provides comparable estimates of inequality of opportunity for tertiary education for about 30 countries in Europe, exploiting the two EU-SILC waves for which information on family background is available (2005 and 2011). It exploits the two point-in-time observations available for most of the countries to analyze the relationship between many institutional dimensions and inequality of opportunity in tertiary education. Although inequality of opportunity in tertiary education varies a lot across countries, parental education and occupation seem to be the most relevant circumstances for almost all of them. We also find evidence of positive correlation between inequality of opportunity for tertiary education and different features of the educational system.

In recent years, the teaching of controversial issues in English language education has gained significant empirical attention. To date, this body of research has not been reviewed. This integrative review analyses and synthesises the main findings of 29 empirical studies on English language teachers' beliefs, experiences, and approaches related to classroom work on controversial issues in lower and upper secondary, as well as tertiary education. The analysis revealed that teachers recognise the multilayered, contextual, and emotional nature of introducing controversies into their classrooms. Some highlight the risks associated with such classroom work and express concerns about potential serious repercussions for addressing specific issues. Nevertheless, most teachers indicate that engaging with controversial issues in English language education supports various learning objectives such as developing critical literacy, democratic citizenship skills, and intercultural and communicative competence. However, scaffolding learners to acquire the language skills necessary for discussing various issues is imperative when the medium of instruction is a foreign, second, or additional language. Teachers' emphasis on strengthening learners' communicative skills in intercultural interactions about controversial issues underscores the added value of such work within language education. The review calls for more research on teaching controversial issues in upper and lower secondary ELT education and in understudied geographical regions. Increased scholarly attention should be directed towards identifying the particularities of controversial issues as a classroom phenomenon in ELT, as well as the universal features shared with other subject areas. Context and implications Rationale for this study: Although teaching controversial issues in English, language education has received increased empirical attention in recent years, this research has not been reviewed. This review aims to fill this gap by synthesising recent empirical research on this phenomenon, thereby identifying the salient themes and patterns characterising this research area. Why the new findings matter: The findings illuminate that the curricular expectations of the teaching paradigm in which teachers are immersed impact their pedagogical choices and agency. While many recognise the pedagogical possibilities of thematising controversial issues, others fear serious repercussions if such matters are brought into the classroom. This has personal and emotional consequences for teachers. Implications for Practitioners: Exploring controversial issues may support various English language learning objectives, including developing critical literacy, citizenship skills, and intercultural and communicative competence. The review demonstrates how educators can organise classroom work in the ELT context to achieve these curricular aims, including how teachers can remain mindful of potential language barriers or anxieties that may arise when discussing controversial issues in the English language classroom. Researchers: The review suggests that future studies should focus on upper and lower secondary English language education and combine several data collection methods. More comprehensive quantitative studies are needed. Theoretically, future research within ELT should strive to establish connections to interdisciplinary research on controversial issues in education.

The National Education Policy (NEP) of Bharat, recently announced, expresses an inclusive overhaul plan aimed at revitalizing the country's educational scenario. This chapter investigates into an in-depth analysis of the transformative impression originated by the NEP on Bharat's education system. It scrutinizes the fundamental pillars and key directives outlined in the policy, highlighting the strategic shifts and innovative approaches intended to transfigure the learning ecosystem. The chapter investigates the NEP's emphasis on holistic learning, flexible pedagogical practices, and the incorporation of technology in education. It examines objectives, including universal access to quality education, multidisciplinary learning, and the advancement of critical thinking and creativity among young minds. Additionally, it illuminates the NEP's focus on early childhood care, the reformation of curriculum and valuation frameworks, and the consequence of teacher training and professional development. Additionally, the chapter critically appraises the challenges and opportunities offered by the NEP's implementation at various levels—national, regional, and institutional. It discovers the socio-cultural implications and potential barriers to effective execution, considering assorted contexts within the vast educational landscape of Bharat. By synthesizing empirical evidence, policy analysis, and scholarly insights, this chapter delivers a wide-ranging understanding of the transformative journey envisioned by the NEP and its potential implications for restructuring education in Bharat. It concludes by discussing future prospects, implications, and areas necessitating further research for the successful realization of the NEP's objectives.

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 transforms India's education system by stressing comprehensive, transdisciplinary, and inclusive learning. This policy aims to match the Indian education system with global norms while retaining its cultural and philosophical history, and higher education institutions (HEIs) are crucial to its success. NEP 2020 envisions an education system that fosters creativity, critical thinking, and ethics to prepare students for real-world situations. From curriculum redesign to faculty training and infrastructure development, NEP 2020 requires HEIs to remodel their structures. Institutions must stimulate research and innovation, integrate multidisciplinary curricula, and offer many entry and departure possibilities. These reforms offer academic excellence but also bring problems, particularly in institutional preparation, funding, and digital infrastructure. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 aspires to transform India's educational framework, emphasizing inclusivity, innovation, and alignment with global standards. This study examines the obstacles encountered by higher educational institutions (HEIs) in the implementation of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, as well as the determinants that affect its successful execution. Drawing upon a sample of 82 respondents, the research delineates significant impediments, including insufficient digital infrastructure, limitations in funding, and a lack of awareness regarding relevant policies. Through the application of chi-square and regression analyses, the study elucidates the significance of institutional preparedness and financial support in facilitating successful implementation. The findings highlight the necessity for focused interventions aimed at addressing regional disparities and enhancing the capacity of higher education institutions (HEIs).

The politics of ethnic identification involving the three major ethnic groups of Malay-Muslims, Chinese and Indians have resulted in power imbalances and hierarchies along the various social, educational and economic dimensions. These power dynamics have in turn produced a Malaysian education and schooling system that is highly politicised and ethnicised. This chapter examines the ways in which British colonial history, Malaysian state policies, contemporary ethnic politics and globalisation are played out within the Malaysian schooling and education system in relation to the inter and intra dynamics of the three major ethnic groups of Malay-Muslims, Chinese and Indians. Practices of social exclusion and inclusion within the education and schooling system will be discussed in relation to state policies such as the 1970 National Economic Policy (NEP), 1990 National Development Policy (NDP), 2001 New Vision Policy (NVP), and the National Education Policy. The ways in which the different types of Malaysian schools are ethnicised will be also examined. These schools vary in terms of Government funding, ethnic community support, resources and future educational opportunities. These schools are also used strategically by the Government and the ethnic collectives in the social and political positionings of these ethnic groups in contemporary Malaysia. The chapter begins with an overview of the politics of ethnicity in contemporary Malaysia as this provides the historical and socio-cultural context of this chapter.

Research evidence is mixed on the consequences of ability grouping policies, but most research has found an overrepresentation of disadvantaged social demographics in low‐ability groups. However, researchers have neglected to explain why ability grouping policies vary between countries. Departing from welfare regime theory, our study aimed to explain schools’ ability grouping polices. For data, we used the principal survey from PISA 2022 sampling approximately 9000 schools in 34 countries. As the explanatory variable, we used welfare regimes, and as the outcome, we analysed schools’ ability grouping policy (a) within the school or (b) within the class. For analysis, we reported descriptive statistics, correspondence analysis and multilevel ordinal regression (adjusting for school demographics). In support of our predictions, we found large differences in ability grouping policies within school between welfare regimes (social democratic welfare regime vs. liberal regime). For ability grouping within the class, we found only meagre differences between social democratic regime compared with conservative regime. In contrast to our predictions, ability grouping within the class seems to be driven by school demographics rather than welfare regimes. As a sensitivity check, we compared welfare regimes with production regimes as in Varieties of Capitalism (VoC or production regime theory; Liberal vs. Coordinated Market Economy). The result suggests that VoC offers an alternative explanation that supplements that of welfare regimes. We conclude that our study both agrees and disagrees with the theory of welfare regime and its alternative (i.e. VoC). Finally, we discuss the wider implications of our findings for educational research.

The research set out to establish the views of students about service provision in higher and tertiary education institutions. A case study approach was used. Important parameters such as tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy were used to obtain students’ views about quality of service provision in higher and tertiary education. The objective of this study was to measure education service quality as signified by student satisfaction using the modified SERVQUAL (EDUSERVQUAL) model. A descriptive cross sectional design was used for a sample of 65 respondents, selected from a population of 1182 full-time students. The SERVQUAL instrument was adapted to measure student satisfaction. This was followed by focus group interviews. Based on the results, negative quality gap scores in all the five dimensions, ranging from -1.72 to -2.22 were identified, indicating that the institution’s education service quality is below student expectations. Although the study has limited generalisability because it was confined to just one institution, the EDUSERVQUAL methodology can be used by institutions seeking long-term sustainable service quality.

Online higher education has been a critical element in the lives of refugees trying to create a better future for their families and community (Kekwaletswe 2007; Crea and McFarland 2015; Giles 2018). Education programs in refugee and humanitarian contexts have been inadequate for a variety of reasons such as: a lack of resources and poor infrastructure, shortage of trained teachers, overcrowding, lack of funding from national governments and NGOs (LWF, 2015). In the last 10 years we have seen an influx of educational institutions and Northern-based universities partnering with development organizations to provide online higher education to bridge the gaps in quality education (Kirk 2006). There have been studies that speak to the potential of higher education for refugees from the perspective of development organizations. However, little has been said from the perspective of refugees themselves about their educational experiences in their local contexts. There are major differences in how men and women experience online education that deserves attention. Higher education equips refugees with the practical skills and qualifications to obtain employment opportunities within the camps or in their home countries should they return. It also enables them to think critically about their lives in a meaningful way. For women the impact goes even further, as it creates a path towards self-sufficiency, independence and empowerment (i.e., economically, politically and socially) (Kabeer, 1999). The gendered nature of access to technology has had significant impacts in the rates of participation (Kekwaletswe, 2007). Furthermore, it is also a pathway for creating female refugee scholars which is an area that is under-researched. Much of the writing on refugees by refugees themselves and development practitioners have been primarily male-dominated. The purpose of this article is to give the opportunity to heighten the female refugee scholar voice from the lens of a recent graduate of the Educational Studies program provided by York University under the Borderless Higher Education (BHER) project online higher education model. The purpose of this article is to explore the empowering potential of BHER’s online teacher education program that has allowed women (and men) to be critical, thoughtful scholars speaking about their experiences, on their own terms. BHER is a development project that seeks to build the capacity of untrained refugee teachers in the Dadaab refugee camps by delivering gender-sensitive teaching and learning skills that can build the capacity of future leaders and teachers in their communities. The findings shared in this article are from the direct experiences of Dahabo Ibrahim, who is a recent graduate of the Educational Studies program. It will highlight the unique experiences of women in Dadaab pursuing tertiary education, through their own lens. The value of women authoring their own lives, and what is meaningful to them in a patriarchal society and development industry. Our aim is to ultimately examine how female scholarship shifts the way we think about refugee education in the humanitarian context.

Chapter 13 - Tertiary Schooling Patterns and Disadvantaged Groups in Turkey

Public investments in childcare generally improve parents' employment chances, yet evidence on their magnitude, cross‐national variation, and social distribution remains mixed. This study examines how public spending on early childhood education and care (ECEC) moderates post‐childbirth employment attachment across Europe. Using longitudinal EU‐SILC microdata for 26 countries (2003–2020) combined with social policy indicators, multilevel mixed‐effects models trace within‐person employment changes before and 2 years after childbirth by gender, skill level, and country context. Results show that childbirth substantially reduces women's employment probabilities, but higher public ECEC investment mitigates this decline by supporting re‐entry into employment. At above‐average spending levels, employment returns to pre‐childbirth levels within 2 years, whereas recovery remains limited where ECEC investments are lower. The pattern holds across skill groups and welfare regimes, except in the Nordic countries, where low‐skilled mothers benefit more. Findings underscore the role of ECEC investment in sustaining labor force participation in Europe.

The neoliberal view of the world holds that globalization signifies the triumph of the market and exerts pressures on states to withdraw from regulation and redistribution in economic and social life. Essentially, in order to prosper societies will have to approximate the American model of a liberal market economy and a minimalist — or residual — welfare state. Governments who refuse to accept this model endanger the welfare of their citizens. In this chapter, we provide evidence from an analysis of advanced industrial societies which contradicts this view. We focus primarily on welfare state regimes, but also explore the important linkages of welfare state to production regimes, particularly their labour market components; in other words, we analyse the linkages between institutions that shape social and economic policy. We make the following six arguments: (1) Generous welfare state regimes and coordinated production regimes performed better on indicators of poverty and inequality than residual welfare state regimes and liberal production regimes in the Golden Age of post-Second World War capitalism, and they have continued to do so under the more difficult conditions since the 1970s while performing at least as well in terms of economic growth. (2) For the most part, significant retrenchment in welfare states was a response to rising levels of unemployment. (3) Welfare state regime shifts have been rare, and where they have occurred, they have been associated with increasing poverty and inequality.

This article explores the critical interface of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and the potential of folk pedagogy in enhancing India’s educational landscape. The NEP 2020, with its emphasis on local, indigenous knowledge systems and a transformative vision for India’s education system, provides an unprecedented opportunity for mainstreaming folk pedagogy into contemporary teaching-learning practices. Approved by the Union Cabinet in 2020 National Education Policy ushered in avant-garde reforms to the education policy of India. Folk pedagogy, a term used to describe traditional modes of education practiced by various indigenous and local communities, carries immense value in terms of cultural preservation, community engagement, and learner-centric methodologies. It promotes experiential learning, critical thinking, and creativity by organically integrating local culture, resources, and traditional wisdom into education. Its salient features and key recommendations exceptionally call for flexibility, multi-disciplinarity, critical thinking and ethical values, multilingualism and the three-language formula. An exceptional emphasis on the power of language and the inclusion of mother/regional under the larger context of Indian ethos has been witnessed for the time. NEP 2020 with such emphasis ushers a pedagogical paradigm shift that seeks to reestablish lost Indian pedagogical heritages and their folk orientation, where education is experiential, diverse, holistic, creative, critical, multidisciplinary and multilingual. By intertwining the principles of NEP 2020 with the rich, culturally diverse practices of folk pedagogy, the article envisages a dynamic, inclusive, and effective education system. It underscores the significant role folk pedagogy can play in achieving NEP’s objectives of creating an equitable and vibrant knowledge society by leveraging local knowledge systems and fostering a deep sense of respect towards the rich cultural heritage of India. The article critically reviews the extent to which NEP 2020 allows for the incorporation of folk pedagogy in its framework, and analyzes how this can be made more effective. It addresses challenges and potential strategies for incorporating folk pedagogy into the mainstream educational practices and curriculum development. The article argues for an extensive dialogue and collaboration among educators, policymakers, and community stakeholders to facilitate this integration, ultimately nurturing a pedagogical system that is grounded in the culture, context, and aspirations of learners. This strategic amalgamation could empower India’s education system to meet the future challenges of the rapidly evolving global knowledge economy, while staying true to its unique cultural roots.

This thesis argues the need for major change in higher education options currently available to Native American students in the United States Universities and Tribal Colleges represent the most common choices that Native students opt for in seeking degrees in tertiary education. However, for the most part, Universities and Tribal Colleges are not working effectively enough to produce the levels of success that are significantly transforming of the wider social, economic and cultural crisis conditions within many Native American communities. This thesis will focus on how to develop a major transformation of the higher education sector generally, a focus which also positively includes the underdeveloped potential that lies within the Tribal Colleges and Native programs in various university sites. This thesis attempts to clarify what has gone wrong In the higher education of Native Americans and to propose a national, innovative strategy for intervention. Identifying what is problematic in existing approaches will build critical insights that will inform the new strategies for change. The overall argument is that new institutions which are more sensitive and responsive to Indigenous aspirations first and foremost need to be considered as a key in transforming Native American higher education performance. Rather than define absolutely all of the possible ingredients of what might be included in a new higher education model, this thesis works first to identify and aggregate a number of key barriers and constraints by collating different information streams. Once identified these critical elements, practices, values and structures that are deemed to be the major barriers to Native success are then used to inform the proposed new institutional framework. While a single institution model is ultimately proposed by this thesis, it should be regarded as 'an' answer, not 'the' answer. A broader intention of this thesis is to bring more focus to this area of concern and underdevelopment within Higher Education and suggest that there are different answers and possibilities (as the Maori examples have demonstrated) that are truly innovative, and which can profoundly impact Native American individual and community social, economic, cultural and political development and advancement.